High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) Lane Marketing Manual September 1994
NOTICE
This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S.
Department of Transportation in the interest of information
exchange. The United States Government assumes no liability for
its contents or use thereof.
The United States Government does not endorse manufacturers or
products. Trade names appear in the document only because they are
essential to the content of the report.
This report is being distributed through the U.S. Department of
Transportation's Technology Sharing Program.
DOT-T-95-04
High Occupancy
Vehicle (HOV) Lane
Marketing Manual
Final Report
September 1994
Prepared by
John W. Billheimer, J.B. Moore,
and Heidi Stamm
Systan, Inc.
343 Second Street (P.O. Box U)
Los Altos, CA 94022
Prepared for
Traffic Management Systems Division
Federal Highway Administration
U.S. Department of Transportation
Washington, D.C. 20590
Distributed in Cooperation with
Technology Sharing Program
U.S. Department of Transportation
Washington, D.C. 20590
DOT-T-95-04
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS PREFACE
This manual has been prepared by SYSTAN, Inc. for the Federal
Highway Administration to provide marketing and HOV professionals
with practical guidelines for improving and the public awareness,
understanding, acceptance and use of HOV lanes.
The manual has been prepared in the Los Altos, California
offices of SYSTAN, Inc. under Contract No DTFH61-93-C-00090 with
the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Mr. Jerry Emerson of
FHWA acted as the project's technical monitor.
SYSTAN's project manager and principal investigator was Dr.
John W. Billheimer. Mr. J.B. Moore of The Roanoke Company provided
public information insights and wrote major sections on Campaign
Implementation, while Ms. Heidi Stamm of Pacific Rim Resources
contributed her hands-on experience with HOV lane marketing and
authored the subsection dealing with Constituency Building and the
Case Study of Seattle's I-5 South HOV lanes. Ms. Juliet McNally of
SYSTAN helped to organize the final report, and Ms. Fran Vella of
Phrasemaker Word Processing prepared all project reports, including
this Manual.
The manual has been prepared under the close scrutiny of the
Transportation Research Board's Committee on HOV Lanes. Committee
members and friends Charles Fuhs, Ron Klusza, Heidi Stamm, Katie
Turnbull, and Carole Valentine liberally contributed their time in
reviewing the manual outline and each of its drafts and made many
helpful suggestions as the work progressed.
The authors received generous assistance from a number of
individuals affiliated with various HOV projects throughout the
U.S. Special acknowledgement is due to Al Pint and Judith Rockvam
of MNDOT and Charleen Zimmer of Strgar-Roscoe-Fausch, Inc. for
their assistance with Minneapolis I-394; to Lynda South Webster and
Frank Dunn of VDOT for their help with both Hampton Roads Projects;
to Ron Klusza and Bob Goodell of CALTRANS District 7 for dredging
up their memories of Santa Monica Diamond Lanes; to M. Scott
MacCalden Jr. of JHK Associates for unearthing the early technical
reports on the San Francisco/Oakland Bay Bridge; to Mary Ann
Reynolds and Carole Valentine of VDOT for reliving their experience
with the Dulles Toll Road; and to Jerry Ayres, Melissa Loomis and
Rob Fellows of VA DOT for sharing their insights into Washington
State HOV policies and programs.
SYSTAN wishes to thank all of those who provided information
and insights on the marketing of HOV lanes, and acknowledges full
responsibility for the analysis, interpretation, and presentation
of the information they provided.
i
FOREWORD
This report has been organized In a modular format, with each
subsection preceded by a topic sentence In bold type and
Illustrated with an exhibit on the facing page.
This report has been organized in four major chapters.
1. Introduction
2. Planning the Campaign
3. Implementing the Campaign
4. Monitoring and Evaluating
The four chapters are further divided into Sections
(designated by letters) and Subsections (designated by numbers).
Each Subsection has been designed as a self-contained, modular
element, with a single page of text facing an exhibit illustrating
the thesis of the Subsection. The layout of each modular
Subsection is sketched in the illustration on the facing page.
For the convenience of the reader, the Chapter Number and
Section and Subsection designation are prominently displayed at the
top of each page. In addition, a topic sentence summarizing the
Subsection thesis appears in bold type at the beginning of each
modular element (See exhibit). The reader interested in a quick
overview of the report can easily skim its contents by reading
these topic sentences, pausing to explore subjects of particular
interest.
ii
FOREWORD
EXHIBIT: TYPICAL SUBSECTION LAYOUT
iii
CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
SECTION PAGE
A. OVERVIEW 1-2
B. CASE STUDY HIGHLIGHTS
1. Overview 1-4
2. Minneapolis I-394 1-6
3. Hampton Roads Route 44 1-8
4. Hampton Roads I-64 and Route 44 (Phase 11) 1-10
5. The Santa Monica Diamond Lanes 1-12
6. The San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge 1-14
7. The Dulles Toll Road 1-16
8. Seattle I-5 South 1-18
MARKETING FOR SUCCESS
1. Start Early and Keep Going 1-20
2. Build Constituencies 1-22
3. Refine the Product 1-24
4. Respect the Single Auto Vehicle 1-26
5. Develop a Marketing Plan 1-28
6. Monitor and Evaluate 1-30
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PLANNING THE CAMPAIGN
SECTION PAGE
A. MARKET RESEARCH
1. Overview 2-2
2. Preliminary Research 2-4
3. Focus Groups 2-6
4. Telephone Surveys 2-8
5. Mail-Back Surveys 2-10
6. Executive Interviews 2-12
7. Traffic Measurements 2-14
B. CONSTITUENCY BUILDING
1. Overview 2-16
2. Database Development 2-18
3. Educational Workshops 2-20
4. Interagency Coordination 2-22
5. Political Liaison 2-24
6. Enforcement Liaison 2-26
7. Judicial Liaison 2-28
8. Identifying Media Partners 2-30
9. Keeping the Media's Attention 2-32
10. Environmental Group Concerns 2-34
11. Community Relations 2-36
C: CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
1. Overview 2-38
2. Setting Campaign Objectives 2-40
3. Identifying Key Issues 2-42
4. Identifying Target Audiences 2-44
5. Budgeting 2-46
6. Hiring Professionals 2-48
7. Selecting Media Channels 2-50
8. Scheduling 2-52
D. MARKETING MATERIALS
1. Overview 2-54
2. Brochures 2-56
3. Newsletters 2-58
4. Flyers 2-60
5. Posters and Print Ads 2-62
6. Newspaper Advertisements 2-64
7. Radio Spots 2-66
8. Television Spots 2-68
9. Outdoor Advertising 2-70
10. Official Signing 2-72
11. Premiums 2-74
v
CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
IMPLEMENTING THE CAMPAIGN
SECTION PAGE
A. MEDIA RELATIONS
1. Orientation 3-2
2. Press Kits 3-4
3. Press Releases 3-6
4. Personnel Training 3-8
B. ADVERTISING PLACEMENTS
1. Radio 3-10
2. Billboards 3-12
3. Paid Television Advertising 3-14
4. Television Public Service Announcements 3-16
5. Newspapers 3-18
C. PROMOTION
1. Direct Mail 3-20
2. Radio and TV Appearances 3-22
3. Computer Communication 3-24
D. COMMUNITY RELATIONS
1. Overview 3-26
2. Public Meetings 3-28
3. Ridesharing Agencies 3-30
4. Business Liaison 3-32
5. Private Industry Support 3-34
6. Telephone Hotline 3-36
E. ONGOING MARKETING
1. Overview 3-38
2. Common Questions and Answers 3-40
3. More Questions and Answers 3-42
4. Answering Criticism 3-44
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS
MONITORING AND EVALUATING
SECTION PAGE
A. OVERVIEW
1. Overview 4-2
B. EVALUATION PLAN
1. Elements of the Evaluation Plan 4-4
2. The Evaluation Tableau 4-6
3. Setting Evaluation Objectives 4-8
4. Defining Measures of Effectiveness 4-10
5. Comparison Strategies 4-12
6. The Evaluation Sample 4-14
C. MONITORING THE PROJECT
1. Overview 4-16
2. Data Collection Frequency 4-18
3. Presenting Findings 4-20
D. MONITORING THE CAMPAIGN
1. Overview 4-22
2. Measuring Exposure 4-24
3. Cost Vs. Exposure 4-26
4. Measuring Reaction 4-28
E. EVALUATION PITFALLS
1. Lack of Historical Perspective 4-30
2. Threats to Validity 4-32
3. Internal Threats to Validity 4-34
4. External Threats to Validity 4-36
5. Threats to Credibility 4-38
vii
CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPENDICES
APPENDIX PAGE
A. CASE STUDIES A-1
B. SAMPLE MATERIALS B-1
C. HOV PROJECT DATA C-1
D. SAMPLE SURVEY FORMS D-1
E. DIRECTORY OF MARKETING CONTACTS E-1
F. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY F-1
viii
SECTION ONE
INTRODUCTION 1
INTRODUCTION 1 A. OVERVIEW
This Marketing Manual is designed to provide marketing and HOV
professionals with practical guidelines for Improving the public
awareness, understanding, acceptance, and use of HOV lanes and
their support facilities.
Over the past 20 years, as congestion has increased on the
nation's freeways and the funds and space for freeway expansion
have become more and more constrained, jurisdictions throughout the
U.S. have begun to implement facilities offering preferential
treatment for high-occupancy vehicles (HOVs). These facilities are
intended to help maximize the movement of people along roadways by
providing HOVs - carpools, vanpools, and buses - with reduced and
more predictable travel times.
Although High-Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes save time for
carpoolers, vanpoolers, and mass transit users and encourage more
effective use of the nation's highways, the restrictions they
impose on single-occupant vehicles (SOVS) have in some cases led to
misunderstandings, criticisms, loss of public support, organized
opposition, and even the cancellation of critical projects. It is
essential that-extensive marketing efforts to be undertaken before,
during, and after the implementation of HOV projects to educate the
public and develop a base of political and community support.
Marketing efforts represent a relatively recent addition to
the transportation planning process and, in some areas, the
inclusion of marketing in the process has been met with skepticism
by traditional highway planners. Where it is no longer possible to
build enough freeways to handle the demand for services by single
occupant vehicles, however, something must be done to alter the
shape of that demand. Marketing tries to do this by opening
channels of communication with the driving public. In the case of
HOV lanes, many different messages can be sent (and received)
through these channels. A few of the marketing objectives cited in
past HOV projects are listed below.
HOV Marketing can:
. Heighten public awareness of ridesharing as an option;
. Increase public confidence in HOV strategies;
. Develop accurate expectations for HOV facilities;
. Advertise the opening of HOV lanes;
. Educate drivers in the use of HOV lanes;
. Promote immediate use of HOV lanes;
. Create awareness of support facilities (i.e., park-and-
ride lots, ridematching services); and
. Provide" updated accounts of HOV lane time savings and
usage.
This HOV Marketing Manual is designed to provide marketing and
HOV professionals with practical guidelines for improving the
public awareness, understanding, acceptance, and use of HOV
facilities.
The organization of the manual is outlined in the accompanying
exhibit. This organization features four main sections. The first
section, this INTRODUCTION, contains highlights from case studies
of HOV marketing experience and summarizes a few key principles of
successful marketing gleaned from these studies. The next main
section, PLANNING THE CAMPAIGN, addresses such key topics as market
research, campaign strategy, marketing materials, and constituency
building. The third main section, IMPLEMENTING THE CAMPAIGN,
covers media relations, advertising placement, promotion, community
relations, and ongoing marketing activities. The last major
section, MONITORING AND EVALUATION, discusses the need to monitor
and assess the marketing campaign, public response, and HOV lane
performance. Finally, APPENDICES contain sample marketing
materials from a variety of HOV projects, project data, the case
studies themselves, and a list of contacts who have had experience
marketing HOV lanes in various parts of the country.
1-2
1-3
INTRODUCTION 1
B. CASE STUDY HIGHLIGHTS
1. OVERVIEW
It's easy to market a good project, but the best marketing
campaign In the world won't save a badly flawed HOV project.
In preparing this manual, case studies were developed focusing
on the marketing aspects of seven HOV projects. These case studies
appear in Appendix A. Key findings from the Appendix A case studies
are outlined in this section of the manual.
The seven projects for which case studies were developed are
listed below.
Appendix Project
A1 Minneapolis I-394
A2 Hampton Roads Route 44
A3 Hampton Roads I-64
A4 The Santa Monica Diamond Lanes
A5 The San Francisco/Oakland Bay Bridge
A6 The Dulles Toll Road
A7 Seattle I-5 South
These case studies were chosen to represent a range of
successful and unsuccessful HOV projects. As shown in the
illustration on the facing page, four of the projects, Minnesota I-
394, Hampton Roads 1-64, The San Francisco/Oakland Bay Bridge, and
Seattle I-5 are generally recognized as successful examples of HOV
lane implementation. The remaining three projects, Hampton Roads
Route 44, The Santa Monica Diamond Lanes, and The Dulles Toll Road,
generated such high levels of public hostility that they were shut
down by political or judicial decrees.
The projects selected for case studies received varying
amounts of marketing attention prior to opening. The amount of
marketing did not necessarily correlate with a project's ultimate
success or failure. Two of the projects studied, Hampton Roads
Route 44 and the San Francisco/Oakland Say Bridge, received
negligible marketing attention prior to opening. While the Hampton
Roads project suffered badly from the empty lane syndrome and was
discontinued by a political maneuver temporarily exempting the area
from HOV restrictions, the San Francisco/Oakland Bay Bridge has
proven to be one of the most successful HOV projects in California.
The best marketing tool for HOV lanes is a well conceived and well
designed project.
A well-designed HOV project can succeed with a minimum of
marketing, but no amount of marketing is likely to save a badly
flawed project. The table below compares the marketing efforts
devoted to two high profile HOV projects, Minnesota I-394 and the
Santa Monica Diamond Lanes.
Minnesota Santa Monica
I-394 Diamond Lanes
Marketing Elements
Marketing Plan? Yes Yes
Constituency Building? Yes Yes
Marketing Budget (1st Year) $400K $350K
Targeted Materials? Yes Yes
1-4
Thus the marketing plans for the two projects were nearly
identical in all respects, and more than ample by the standards of
most HOV projects. Yet the express lanes on Minnesota I-394 are
generally acknowledged as a successful HOV project, while the
Diamond Lanes on the Santa Monica Freeway, which cost non-
carpoolers far more time than carpoolers and caused the accident
rate to more than double, were an early and widely publicized HOV
failure. It is not likely that any marketing program could have
made the Santa Monica Diamond Lanes, as designed and implemented,
palatable to the Los Angeles public.
The case studies appearing in this manual were selected with
an eye toward identifying projects that were unequivocal successes
or failures. Most HOV lanes fall somewhere between these two
extremes. These lanes require marketing programs to build
constituencies, promote projects, and attract patrons. This manual
has been developed to assist the designers, planners, and marketers
of these lanes
1-5
INTRODUCTION 1
B. CASE STUDY HIGHLIGHTS
2. MINNEAPOLIS I-394
"Good media relations are more Important than advertising In
ensuring project success."
Al Pint, I-394 Project Manager
PROJECT OVERVIEW
I-394, the last segment of the interstate system to be
constructed in the Twin Cities Metropolitan Area, extends eleven
miles to the west of downtown Minneapolis. A detailed case study
of this project may be found in Appendix A-1. The design consists
of eight miles of concurrent-flow, two-person HOV lanes, with three
miles of barrier-separated, reversible HOV lanes entering
Minneapolis. The lanes are supported by a variety of elements,
including two major transit stations, seven park-and-ride lots,
ramp metering, HOV bypass lanes at selected ramps, and three new
directly accessible parking garages in downtown Minneapolis, which
offer discounted rates to carpoolers.
The I-394 lanes afford a time savings ranging from five to
seven minutes to buses and two-person carpools traveling the length
of the project. Since the lanes opened to provide temporary
construction relief in 1986, usage has nearly tripled. By the
Spring of 1993, 4,606 people, or 48% of the inbound commuters
during the peak hour, used the I-394 Express Lanes each morning.
MARKETING OVERVIEW
Elements: The Express Lanes on I-394 have been accompanied by
a dedicated and extensive marketing program which has grown and
evolved as the lanes proceeded from construction to completion.
The marketing program includes:
. Market Research Activities which used telephone surveys,
focus groups, and employer interviews to assess marketing
potential, identify target audiences, test promising
marketing approaches, and measure public reactions to the
Express Lane.
. Marketing Plan. A unified marketing plan guided the
production and dissemination of a wide variety of
promotional materials, including a Commuter Guide,
quarterly newsletters, construction bulletins, weekly
press releases, press tours, press kits, radio spots,
billboards, newspaper ads, bus-side advertising, posters,
and a telephone hotline.
. Constituency Building Programs included the creation of a
Corridor Management Team involving all affected public
agencies and the maintenance of good community
relationships with businesses and residents.
. Marketing and Evaluation Programs which enabled MN/DOT to
report project impacts in a timely and accurate fashion.
Objectives. Marketing objectives evolved gradually from
introducing the HOV concept as construction began to filling the
HOV lanes when construction was completed. According to MN/DOT,
marketing personnel concentrated on "increasing carpooling and bus
riding, establishing two-way communication with target audiences,
and maintaining positive media relations... Strategies regularly
focused on communicating the benefits of I-394, utilizing both paid
and non-paid media to reach target audiences and tying all
communication vehicles together with a similar look and a Highway
12/I-394 logo."
Budget. The marketing program was supported by an in-house
marketing liaison, a contract with a public relations/advertising
agency, and a dedicated budget that averaged $400,000 per year.
1-6
INTRODUCTION 1
B. CASE STUDY HIGHLIGHTS
2. MINNEAPOLIS I-394
EXHIBIT: REASONS FOR PROJECT SUCCESS
Source: Phase 1 Report (Strgar-Roscoe-Fausch,
. The lane worked the way It was intended to work. Its benefit
in bypassing congestion is clearly visible to people who use
the highway.
. The promises for time savings were kept. People perceive
greater time savings than were promised and say this is the
main reason they use the HOV lane.
. The definition of a carpool as a passenger vehicle with two or
more people made it easier to form carpools and put reasonable
volumes in the lane immediately; thus, there was no "empty
lane syndrome."
. Occupancy requirements were rigorously enforced: Patrols were
highly visible during the first two weeks of operation and
periodically thereafter.
. There was top-down open support from-within MN/DOT and strong
interagency support for the project. The public commitment of
the Commissioner and the major decision-making role of the
Corridor Management Team were very important in achieving this
support.
. By designating a Corridor Manager, with responsibility for the
operation of the interim HOV lane as well as the construction
of I-394, MN/DOT was able to respond immediately to any
problems or criticism.
. A lot of attention was given to providing timely Information
to people, to maintaining a positive image of I-394
construction and the HOV lane, and to marketing the benefits
of carpooling and riding the bus. A variety of methods were
used including a telephone "hotline," newsletters, billboards,
media coverage and special, events.
. A system of supportive facilities and programs was implemented
to provide the best possible level of service, cost savings
and time savings for people who carpool or ride the bus.
REASONS FOR SUCCESS
By almost any measure, the I-394 Express Lanes can be termed a
success. They are widely accepted by the public, offer carpoolers
and bus riders a consistent time savings, have minimal violation
rates, carry 48% of the Corridor's commuters during the peak
morning hour, and have led to the formation of a number of
carpools. Many factors contributed to this success in the
planning, design, construction and operation stages. The factors
judged to be most important by the participants themselves are
cited in the above exhibit in the project's Phase I Report (Strgar-
Roscoe-Fausch, 1987):
The last four of the cited factors (interagency support,
focused responsibility, timely information, and support facilities)
fall under the traditional heading of marketing concerns. However,
the first four factors, which address the design and operating
decisions which ensured that the lanes would work the way they were
intended to work, were just as important from a marketing
standpoint. In the words of Corridor Manager Al Pint, "It's easy
to market a good product."
1-7
INTRODUCTION 1
B. CASE STUDY HIGHLIGHTS
3. HAMPTON ROADS ROUTE 44
"I don't think people would have been so mad if they'd seen a
car in there now and then. "
State Senator opposing Route 44 HOV Lanes
PROJECT OVERVIEW
The Virginia DOT (VDOT) planned HOV lanes on the Virginia
Beach-Norfolk Expressway (Virginia Route 44) and I-64 at the
crossroads linking Norfolk, Hampton Roads, and Virginia Beach. The
segment on Route 44 consisted of five miles of concurrent-flow HOV
lanes, while adjoining lanes on I-64 were designed as barrier-
separated reversible flow lanes. The initial design of the lanes
made no provision for express bus service or park-and-ride
facilities.
The first leg of the HOV system was constructed on Route 44
and was scheduled-to open in September 1986. When funding for the
reversible lanes on I-64 proved to be slow in coming, VDOT had to
decide whether to open the Route 44 lanes as concurrent flow HOV
lanes or open the new lanes to all traffic and restrict them to
HOVs when the entire system was complete. Feeling it would be too
difficult to reclaim the lanes for HOVs once they had been opened
to all traffic, VDOT decided to restrict the new lanes to vehicles
with three or more occupants from opening day onward.
Once operational, the lanes shaved five minutes from commuting
times during rush hour. However, few motorists elected to take
advantage of this time savings by forming three-person carpools.
One month after opening, the lanes carded just 50 vehicles per
hour, or about one percent of the total number of rush-hour
vehicles. One year after opening, HOV lane traffic had grown to
250 vehicles per hour, including a number of Violators. This was
far too little traffic to overcome the empty lane syndrome, and the
promise of more vehicles at some indefinite future date when I-64
opened did little to sway adverse public opinion. Politicians,
recognizing that non-carpoolers far outnumbered carpoolers,
capitalized on the public outrage and made the HOV lanes an
election-year issue. The Virginia General Assembly passed a law
rescinding the HOV concept in the Hampton Roads Area, and the lanes
were opened to general traffic nineteen months after they had been
designated as HOV lanes. In a compromise move undertaken to
protect federal funding, it was agreed that the lanes would be
reopened when the entire HOV system was completed on I-64.
Accordingly, the HOV-3 signs were left standing, covered with a
message saying that the carpool provisions were "Temporarily
rescinded." (See Exhibit.)
MARKETING OVERVIEW
Because the decision to open the Route 44 lanes with a rather
restrictive 3+ occupancy requirement was delayed until two months
before the actual opening of the lanes, little pre-project
marketing could be accomplished. Marketing activities budgeted
$40,000 for a brochure entitled "Want to Travel in Faster
Company?"; a two-page newspaper ad in the Virginia Pilot, and an
instructional video.
Little research into public attitudes preceded the project,
and the adverse public response to the HOV lanes was
underestimated. The short set-up period also left no time to build
coalitions with allied agencies or seek out potential supporters in
the legislature. As a result, the lanes were largely unenforced,
and the General Assembly had no trouble passing the bill that
killed HOV lane operations.
1-8
REASONS FOR FAILURE
When reversible HOV lanes on I-64 were completed, the Route 44
lanes were reopened as part of a broader system (See Appendix A-3).
VDOT personnel reviewed the reasons the lanes had failed to gain a
following during their initial incarnation. These reasons are
listed below:
- Failure to gain support for HOV from those who could not use
the lanes;
- Low usage. Volume never increased enough to overcome the
empty lane syndrome;
- Commuters experienced little time savings in the HOV lane;
- The system was too incomplete to be a significant benefit to
the public;
- The inconvenience of making rideshare accommodations;
- The high violation rat e attributed to low enforcement levels.
Lynda South Webster, VDOT's Director of Public Affairs, noted
that the Failure to realize material benefits in time savings, slow
growth in overall use, and a poor understanding and "buy in" of the
longrange benefits" led to the rescinding of the Route 44 lanes.
While she observed that reducing the carpool requirement to two or
more occupants might have helped counter the empty lane syndrome,
the project as staged was incomplete and unsupported by either a
rideshare program or park-and-ride lots. "The product was simply
not a good one," she concluded and "the best marketing program
can't salvage a poor product."
1-9
INTRODUCTION 1
B. CASE STUDY HIGHLIGHTS
4. HAMPTON ROADS I-64 AND ROUTE 44 (Phase II)
"THIS TIME HOV GOES THE DISTANCE."
VDOT Marketing Slogan
PROJECT OVERVIEW
To protect federal funding for the freeway improvements
planned at the Norfolk/Hampton Crossroads, it was agreed that the
HOV lanes on Route 44 (See Section 1 -B-3) would be re-opened when
the reversible lanes on I-64 were completed and the entire HOV
system was in place. The completed project, which is described in
detail in Appendix A-3, opened on September 15, 1992. In the four-
and-a-half years between the legislatively-mandated lifting of
restrictions on Route 44 and the opening of the completed system,
VDOT took several measures to ensure the success of the new system.
These included:
- The formation of an HOV Steering Committee composed of local
municipalities, public utility districts, the Norfolk Naval
Base, the Virginia State police, VDOT, the state public
transportation department, and the regional transportation
district;
- The development of a long-range marketing program, which
included market research activities;
- The design of several--rideshare support facilities including
computer ridematching, employer outreach programs, park-and-
ride lots, promotional signage, express bus service, and
subsidized transit fares; and
- The redefinition of occupancy requirements from three persons
to two persons.
With the installation of the full HOV project, speeds in
conventional lanes improved dramatically, and HOVs were able to
travel at 55 miles per hour. Eight months after installation, the
freeways were carrying approximately the same number of people in
12% fewer vehicles during the morning peak, and the number of
carpools with two or more people had more than doubled, increasing
from 1,439 before the HOV lane opening to 3,043 after eight months.
MARKETING OVERVIEW
Five Year Plan: In view of the negative public reaction to
the initial opening of HOV lanes on Route 44, the HOV Steering
Committee felt it needed to "...be more positive, set a stronger
image, and promote a civic responsibility (to rideshare)." To
accomplish this, the Committee developed a five-year, three-phase
marketing plan designed to "overcome past problems, create positive
awareness, and induce ridesharing through the use of HOV lanes."
The three phases were designed to promote the general concept of
ridesharing up to one year before opening (Phase 1); focus on HOV
operating issues during the year before opening (Phase 2); and
successfully open the lanes and ensure their continuing acceptance
and use during the first two years of operation (Phase 3). The
marketing plan was budgeted at $1.5 million over the five years.
Key Issues: To address key issues, VDOT developed a series of
positioning statements that addressed the HOV system's key selling
points and provided a solid, consistent base for discussing the HOV
system with the news media, citizens, civic groups, and other
audiences. The statements were divided into four key categories;
(1) Benefits to commuters; (2) Benefits to the community; (3) The
changing transportation network; and (4) The importance of I-64 and
Route 44 to the new HOV system.
1-10
INTRODUCTION 1
B. CASE STUDY HIGHLIGHTS
4. HAMPTON ROADS I-64 AND ROUTE 44 (Phase 11)
EXHIBIT: MARKETING CONCLUSIONS OF VDOT PERSONNEL
1. The HOV concept Is not easily accepted by the public.
2. Keep the business community, political leaders, and
traffic reporters regularly briefed so they won't become
critics In the media.
3. Build support for HOV lanes among major employers (Navy)
and make them a part of your marketing team. A transient
workforce such as the Navy necessitates constant
education on "how to",use the HOV system and Its
benefits.
4. Continued acceptance of HOV requires continued education
and promotion of the personal and social benefits of
ridesharing to commuters, employers and political
leaders.
5. Good enforcement is also key to positive perception of
how well the HOV lanes work. Ease of enforcement must be
a key component in designing future systems.
6. Convenience is a key factor. Convenient, safe park-and-
ride lot locations, ridematching services, express bus
service and employer support are essential elements In
the success of the HOV system.
7. It appears that public acceptance Is contingent on the
perception of high lane use. Success breeds success...
The strategy of starting with HOV-2 and moving up as
congestion dictates Is consistent with this idea.
Marketing Materials. VDOT found the following marketing elements to
be most effective.
- "Burma Shave" Signs. Roadside jingles modeled after the old
"Burma-Shave" signs reached corridor commuters directly with
memorable messages. One series of signs read: Savvy
commuters/Soon can snore/Ten more minutes/Than before/Call
623-RIDE.
- Traffic Report Spots. VDOT sponsored live "reads" by traffic
reporters during the commute periods. These messages not only
reached drivers during their commute (and sounded like
reporting rather than public service messages) but also
improved the reporters views of the HOV lanes.
- Employer Outreach Kits with a variety of information, ranging
from computer ridematching programs to express bus service.
- Heavy placement of articles and maps on how lo use HOV lanes
in public and private sector employee newsletters. Camera-
ready "Questions and Answers" were highly effective and
customized maps were particularly well-received by the media--
maps almost guaranteed widespread coverage.
General --Marketing-Conclusions. Commuter surveys conducted
after the lanes opened indicated that 70% of those surveyed were in
favor of the lanes. Reflecting on their experience with both the
initial HOV lanes on Route 44 and the more complete network, the
public relations personnel at VDOT set down the conclusions listed
in the above exhibit.
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INTRODUCTION 1
B. CASE STUDY HIGHLIGHTS
5. THE SANTA MONICA DIAMOND LANES
"DIAMOND IS ROUGH"
Los Angeles Herald Examiner headline on opening day of the
Santa Monica Diamond Lanes
PROJECT OVERVIEW
On March 15, 1976, the California Department of Transportation
(CALTRANS) reserved the median lane in each direction of a 12-mile,
eight-lane segment of the Santa Monica Freeway linking the city of
Santa Monica with downtown Los Angeles for the exclusive use of
buses and carpools carrying three or more occupants during the peak
hours of traffic flow. Implementation of the Diamond Lanes was
accompanied by the introduction of a variety of express bus
services and the opening of three new Park-and-Ride lots in Western
Los Angeles.
The Santa Monica Freeway project marked the first time
preferential lanes had been created by taking busy freeway lanes
out of existing service and dedicating them to the exclusive use of
highoccupancy vehicles. Although the Diamond Lanes entailed no
major physical modifications or construction on the freeway itself,
they generated considerable emotional reaction among freeway
drivers and other residents of Los Angeles. The first day of
operations was disastrous, featuring bumper-to-bumper traffic, long
queues at on-ramps, a malfunctioning ramp meter, many accidents,
outraged drivers, poor press notices, and derisive news commentary.
As the project progressed, freeway performance improved somewhat
and both bus and carpool ridership increased, but accidents
remained a serious problem and the climate of public opinion and
media reaction grew more and more hostile. (A more detailed account
of the project's impacts may be found in Appendix A-4.) The
preferential lanes operated amid much controversy for 21 weeks
until August 9, 1976, when the U.S. District Court in Los Angeles
halted the project and ordered additional environmental studies
prior to its continuation.
MARKETING OVERVIEW
The participating agencies had developed a conventional
marketing plan (CALTRANS, August, 1975) designed primarily to
introduce the public to the Diamond Lanes and induce ridesharing.
From its disastrous opening day onward, the project was anything
but conventional. It quickly became a media event, generating
reams of newsprint, radio and television coverage, vocal public
reactions, political debate, lawsuits, banners, slogans, badges,
cartoons, and at least one song. As expressed in the official DOT
evaluation (Billheimer, et al., 1977), "From their implementation
to their dissolution, the Diamond Lanes were never far from public
View and, when in view, they were treated as an eyesore."
Key issues: From the start, CALTRANS and its allied agencies
recognized that the key marketing issue was the problem of taking a
lane away from one of the busiest freeways in the U.S. and
restricting it to bus and carpool use. (Federal requirements at the
time dictated carpool occupancy rates of three or more persons.
Prior to opening day, an average of 500 cars per hour met this
restriction, which placed projected operations on the threshold of
the empty lane syndrome.) To counteract the anticipated adverse
reaction during the early days of operations, the marketing team
planned to stress the anticipated benefits of the project: economy,
convenience, environmental improvement, energy conservation, better
utilization of existing transit facilities, and increased
ridesharing.
Budget: The marketing campaign was allocated a budget of
$358,000 for the first year's activity. Prior to the project
implementation, this appeared to be ample. As noted earlier (See
Section 1-B-1), the marketing plan for the Santa Monica Diamond
Lanes contained many of the same elements as that of a vastly more
successful project, Minnesota I-394.
Constituency Building Attempts: Because of the fragmentation
of public power and authority in Los Angeles, many government
agencies and elected officials had some purview over-the
1-12
INTRODUCTION 1
B. CASE STUDY HIGHLIGHTS
5. THE SANTA MONICA DIAMOND LANES
EXHIBIT: PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION SUGGESTIONS FROM SANTA MONICA
DIAMOND LANE DEMONSTRATION
Source: Billheimer et al. 1977
EARLY PLANNING
- Identify all potentially adverse effects in advance
- Publicize both positive and negative impacts in advance
- Include all affected public agencies and officials in the
planning process
- Involve the public in the planning process
- Involve the planners in the public process
PRE-IMPLEMENTATION
- Establish and communicate standards for project performance
- Develop a detailed evaluation plan and follow it
- Provide a call-in number as a lightning rod for public
response
IMPLEMENTATION
- Establish a focal point for information dissemination
- Let the demonstration run its course
Diamond Lane Project. In an attempt to unify these diverse
elements, CALTRANS formed a Joint Project Committee Composed of
representatives of key agencies with an interest in the project.
Although there was broad agency participation in the Joint Project
Committee, each decision-maker had his own concept of project
goals, and the degree of involvement and commitment to the Diamond
Lanes varied greatly from agency to agency. When the media
spotlight turned on the project, the public saw not a united front
but a number of public agencies and elected officials pointing
accusing fingers at the lead agencies, while other officials
remained prudently silent.
Community Reaction. Surveys, interviews, telephone calls,
newspaper polls, public hearings, and letters to newspaper editors
occurring during and after the project all revealed an
overwhelmingly negative public response to the Diamond Lanes. In
the most extensive survey undertaken, eighty-six percent of the
corridor drivers surveyed--including the majority of carpoolers--
felt the Diamond Lanes were either harmful or of no benefit
whatsoever. Although newspaper, television, and radio coverage was
overwhelmingly negative, attempts to lay the full blame for the
hostile public response on the media both oversimplify and
overstate the case. It is unlikely that the media reports alone
could have generated such a hostile response if the reports were
not reinforced by a daily negative impact on the lives of the
commuting public.
Marketing Impact. To suggest that better marketing might have
salvaged the Santa Monica Diamond Lanes is like saying that a
better ad campaign might have saved the Titanic. The marketing
approach, a well-planned public information program, could not
withstand the media outcry which was fueled by the project's
technical shortcomings. While the Diamond Lanes succeeded to some
degree in attracting riders to carpools and transit, they brought
about a significant increase in freeway-accidents, non-carpoolers
lost far more time than carpoolers gained, and the negative public
reaction stalled the implementation of other preferential treatment
projects in Southern California.
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INTRODUCTION 1
B. CASE STUDY HIGHLIGHTS
6. SAN FRANCISCO-OAKLAND BAY BRIDGE
An exceptional project can survive and thrive without much
formal marketing.
PROJECT OVERVIEW
The Bay Bridge between San Francisco and Oakland features one
of the oldest and most successful preferential carpool lanes in the
U.S. The bridge has two roadway decks, each of which carry five
traffic lanes. Tolls are collected only in the westbound direction
at a toll plaza located a half mile east of the bridge's upper
deck. On December 8, 1971 two lanes of the seventeen toll lanes
approaching the westbound bridge deck were taken from general use
and reserved for carpools with three or more occupants. At the
time of their opening, the toll-free HOV lanes saved carpoolers
between four and five minutes of waiting time, as well as the 500
toll assessed of non-carpoolers.
Since the lanes were opened, a metering system has been
installed beyond the toll booths. This system allows the bridge to
carry the maximum number of vehicles and simplifies enforcement of
the HOV lanes. The current bridge approach contains twenty-two
lanes, three of which are dedicated to three person HOVs between 5
a.m. and 10 a.m. and between 3 p.m. and 6 p.m. These lanes save
carpoolers an estimated ten minutes of waiting time during the
morning peak, as well as the $1.00 toll collected in other lanes.
A more complete description of bridge operations may be found in
Appendix A-5.
Prior to the opening of the Bay Bridge HOV lanes, counts
showed only 1,100 carpools using the bridge during the morning
peak. After the introduction of the HOV lanes, the number of
carpools initially doubled, jumped. to 4,400 during the 1974 AC
Transit strike and rose to nearly 7,000 just prior to the Loma
Prieta earthquake in October, 1989, which shut the bridge down for
a month. In 1993, the bridge carded 5,360 carpools during the 3-
hour morning peak. During the peak hour between 7 a.m. and 8 a.m.,
the HOV lanes carried 57% of the people crossing the bridge in only
one-quarter of the vehicles.
MARKETING OVERVIEW
Although the San Francisco Bay Bridge HOV lanes are easily the
most successful carpool lanes in California, the project has
received very little marketing support. At the time the lanes were
introduced, bridge handouts announced the project and advance signs
warned drivers that the carpool lane began in the next 1,500 feet.
In subsequent years, the bridge lanes have been included in
promotional materials prepared by RIDES for Bay Area Commuters,
which provides referral services for Bay Area residents seeking
ridesharing assistance, and in the Year 2005 HOV Lane Master Plan
prepared by CALTRANS, the CHP, and the Metropolitan Transportation
Commission (MTC). However, no marketing activities are dedicated
to the promotion of the lanes themselves, which have thrived
largely on word-of-mouth advertising.
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GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
With a minimal amount of marketing, the HOV lanes on the San
Francisco Bay Bridge have become one of the most successful
preferential lane projects in the country. The number of three-
person carpools crossing the bridge has increased more than five-
fold since the lanes were opened in December 1971. Even though the
lanes were created by converting mixed-flow lanes, they have
remained free of controversy and enjoy one of the lowest violation
rates among California's preferential lane projects. The addition
of metering in March 1974 made the lanes easy to enforce and
ensured that the bridge would be used to its fullest capacity.
Moreover, because the metering system controlled the rate of flow
onto the bridge, the total delay for all vehicles remained the
same, guaranteeing that the time lost by noncarpoolers would
exactly equal the time saved by carpool vehicles.
The lesson of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge priority
lanes would seem to be that if you've got a good project, one that
is safe, easily enforced, allows the facility to operate at 100%
capacity, and saves carpoolers significant amounts of time without
costing non-carpoolers more time than carpoolers save, then you may
not need much formal marketing. Since these conditions are rarely
met, and may not be recognized in advance, it is best to assume
that all HOV projects will need some level of advance marketing.
1-15
INTRODUCTION 1
B. CASE STUDY HIGHLIGHTS
7. THE DULLES TOLL ROAD
"A commuter's worst nightmare come true."
U.S. Representative Frank Wolf from Northern Virginia
PROJECT OVERVIEW
Location: The Dulles Toll Road stretches twelve miles from
the Dulles International Airport to Tysons Corner, Virginia,
paralleling the Dulles Airport Access Road and providing Northern
Virginia residents of Loudoun and Fairfax Counties access to the
Washington, D.C. In 1989, the Virginia General Assembly approved
the addition of one new lane in each direction to the two existing
toll road lanes and mandated that the new lanes be HOV lanes.
After a lengthy construction period, the lanes were scheduled to
open for buses and carpools with three or more occupants on
September 2, 1992, the day after Labor Day. Temporary park-and-
ride lots were to support the new HOV lanes, with more extensive,
permanent facilities planned for the future.
Premature Opening: A six-mile section of the new roadway was
completed in October 1991, nearly one year in advance of the
projected HOV-lane opening date. In the face of existing
congestion, Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) officials
decided to open the new six-mile stretch to all traffic during this
interim period. A similar decision was made when the final six-
mile section of toll road was completed the following July. The
opening of 12 miles of new lanes to all traffic relieved congestion
on the toll road and made commuters happy, but it left VDOT faced
with the prospect of shoe horning three lanes of traffic back into
two lanes when HOV restrictions were imposed following Labor Day.
Political Opposition: By early August, opposition to the
opening of the Dulles Toll Road HOV lanes began to manifest itself.
Opposition was led by U.S. Representative Frank Wolf, a Republican
from Northern Virginia, who argued that closing one of the already-
opened lanes to normal traffic would increase congestion, pollution
and the risk of accidents. Wolf's arguments generated a heated
debate in the local news media and led to the formation of an anti-
HOV group, the Citizens Against Dulles HOV, as well as anti-HOV
votes by the Supervising Boards of both Loudoun and Fairfax
counties.
HOV Opening: On opening day, traffic tie-ups exceeded those
experienced before the new lanes were constructed, commute trips
that had taken only a half-hour before stretched to over an hour,
the HOV lanes appeared empty in comparison to the bumper-to-bumper
congestion in adjacent lanes, and the frustrations of thousands of
non-carpoolers further fueled the controversy.
Closing: The initial month of operations was marked by public
argument and political electioneering with VDOT adopting a "wait-
and-see" attitude as HOV lane usage increased. Near the end of
September, Representative Wolf seized the initiative by attaching
an amendment to a federal transportation appropriations bill
banning HOV lanes on toll roads on federal lands--a proviso that
applied only to the Dulles Toll Road. The measure passed but the
Governor of Virginia preempted it with a decree that the lanes
revert to general-purpose use pending further study. The lanes
reverted to general use on Monday, October 5, roughly one month
after their controversial implementation.
MARKETING OVERVIEW
Key Concerns: Because other HOV lanes had been operating
successfully in Northern Virginia for some time, VDOT's initial
marketing efforts focused on advertising the coming of the HOV
lanes on the Dulles Toll Road. Planned marketing activities
included the use of "Burma Shave" signs singing the praises of
carpooling, bus advertising brochures, and elaborate opening day
ceremonies, including a barrel-bashing. (See Appendix A-6 for more
details.) When the lanes were opened
1-16
INTRODUCTION
B. CASE STUDY HIGHLIGHTS
7. THE DULLES TOLL ROAD
EXHIBIT: MARKETING LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE DULLES HOV LANE
EXPERIENCE
1. Know the market and refine the product: Opening the Toll Road
Lanes in advance seriously weakened the lanes' chances of
success, but the lack of support facilities such as permanent
park-and-ride lots also contributed to the lanes' demise.
2. Start selling early, six months to a year in advance of
opening day.
3. Seek out natural allies: Build constituency groups in
advance, particularly among politicians, community leaders,
and media representatives such as traffic reporters and
columnists.
4. Choose a unifying theme: Marketing becomes easier when
materials are unified through a consistent logo or slogan
(i.e. Sane Lanes or Smart Lanes).
5. Time the opening carefully. Open the lanes when traffic is
relatively low.
6. Avoid election years: Opening just before an election tempts
politicians to cater to single auto drivers, who represent
more votes than carpoolers.
7. Stick with It: A project whose life is constantly threatened
isn't likely to attract many full time commitments to
carpooling.
temporarily to unrestricted traffic, their concerns and problems
expanded enormously. While under siege, they had to find ways to
respond to critics, mollify politicians, and make non-carpoolers
accept being shoehorned back into two lanes when HOV restrictions
were imposed. These weren't easy tasks under the best
circumstances, and they were undertaken under the worst of
circumstances, in a short time frame while under attack from
politicians, the press, and the public.
Constituency Building: One of the most critical shortcomings
in VDOT's marketing efforts was the failure to build constituencies
that could provide backing for the Toll Road HOV lanes during the
month of controversy that preceded their opening. As the
Washington Post noted "When Rep. Frank R. Wolf(R-VA) made his first
nonpublic rumbles against HOV to the highway department, no
official bothered to hold his hand in an attempt to ease his
constituent-instigated apprehensions."
Media Relations: One all-important constituency which VDOT
failed to bring around to its point of view was the media.
Newspaper editorials were overwhelmingly opposed to the HOV lanes,
and feature pages were filled with tales of angry motorists who
claimed to experience long delays, see many violators, narrowly
avoid accidents, and who viewed the lanes as "social engineering
designed by bureaucrats for bureaucrats." Two local traffic
reporters also joined the anti-HOV chorus, calling HOV lanes
"wishful thinking" and attacking VDOT's "Inflated statistics"
during prime drive time.
Budget: Whereas a total of $52 million was spent to build the
Dulles Toll Road HOV Lanes and related improvements, the Washington
Post reported that "...only $12,000 was spent on public-private
efforts to get commuters to use the new lanes." In the words of the
Post "Everybody fell asleep on the Dulles Toll Road, including
HOV's most ardent supporters." By the time they woke up, the best-
marketing campaign in the world couldn't have saved the project.
As a Loudoun Times-Mirror editorial noted, "All the high powered
public relations in the world can't overcome terrible policy."
1-17
INTRODUCTION 1
B. CASE STUDY HIGHLIGHTS
8. SEATTLE I-5 SOUTH
"What would you do with 100 hours of free time?"
Slogan from I-5 Marketing Campaign
PROJECT OVERVIEW
The Interstate 5 (I-5) Corridor is the major north-south
interstate running the entire length of Washington State. In the
Puget Sound region it bisects Seattle and serves as the major
roadway to and through the Metropolitan Seattle Area. The
Washington State DOT (WSDOT) originally planned to open HOV lanes
along the I-5 to the South of Seattle Corridor in the late 1990's.
In response to public pressure, this schedule was moved up, and HOV
lanes were opened to traffic between South Center and Federal Way
in the summer of 1991. The HOV lanes run 4.5 miles in both
directions and are temporarily squeezed into narrower lanes
adjacent to the freeway general purpose lanes. When first opened,
the HOV lanes were restricted to vehicles carrying three or more
persons. This designation was changed to two or more persons in
1993. The lanes are supported by park-and-ride lots and easily
accessible parking locations in downtown Seattle that offer
discounted rates to carpoolers.
While the lanes were underutilized under the three-plus
carpool definition, no evaluation of occupancy and operations under
the two-plus definition had been undertaken at the time this manual
was prepared.
MARKETING OVERVIEW
The marketing activities for the I-5 HOV Study were designed
to stimulate awareness and comments from a variety of target
markets associated with or having an interest in the study process
and its outcome. These markets included elected officials,
jurisdiction staff, employers, commuters, the media and the general
public. A unique characteristic of the project was the early
involvement of the general public in the process. A group of
citizens, organized as SHOVE (5-Southend High Occupancy Vehicle
Enthusiasts), gathered more than 2000 signatures from commuters who
wanted HOV lanes in South King County and North Pierce County.
Leaders of SHOVE also testified before members of the State
Transportation Commission, and were instrumental in having the
lanes implemented early.
Market Research: A telephone survey of 819 households and
executive interviews with 22 political, neighborhood, and business
leaders were used to guide the marketing plan development. The
telephone survey showed that respondents were highly frustrated
with the level of traffic on I-5, and the majority believed that
HOV lanes were"fairly" or "very effective," even though few had
used HOV lanes in the past.
Campaign Strategy. An extensive education plan was developed
to educate elected officials and key jurisdictions about the role
HOV facilities play in providing mobility for the region. The
education focus of the plan included: a bus tour; a kick off
briefing; ongoing media relations and database management; the
publication of a quarterly newsletter; and jurisdictional
briefings. In addition, to promote the opening of this HOV segment
a marketing plan was implemented that included: the development of
a logo; transit advertising; displays; special event participation;
and the development of promotional materials including posters,
brochures, buttons, balloons and self-stick note pads all
incorporating the logo for the project.
1-18
GENERAL MARKETING CONCLUSIONS
As with most HOV projects, it is difficult to separate the
success of the marketing activities from the success of the
project. Well-designed projects where there is demand will result
in facility success, whereas poorly designed projects or projects
implemented in areas where there is little demand may be termed as
failures. In the case of the I-5 South HOV lanes, the facility did
little to contribute to Washington State's goals for mobility and
congestion management.
There were, however, two key elements which make the project a
success from a marketing perspective:
- Market--research activities established a baseline of depth
and breadth regarding HOV understanding and support. This
market research--both telephone survey and Executive
Interviews--gave the WSDOT an understanding of the
expectations their constituents had for HOV facilities. This
information aided not only in the marketing messages used to
promote the opening of the HOV lanes, but in the design of the
facility as well.
- The constituency-building process, which was an integral part
of the technical planning and implementation actions,
established the WSDOT commitment to HOV facilities as part of
the region's vision for mobility. This process of recognizing
jurisdictions and community leaders as partners in the
education and marketing process as well as the planning of the
facility broadened the understanding and support for the
specific HOV facility on I-5 in South King County.
1-19
INTRODUCTION 1
C. MARKETING FOR SUCCESS
1. START EARLY AND KEEP GOING
HOV marketing activities should begin as early as possible in
the project planning stages, peak at the time the project opens,
and continue over the life of the project.
Marketing activities surrounding HOV facilities can be divided
into three separate phases, covering (1) Project planning; (2)
Project opening; and (3) Ongoing project operations.
ADVANCE MARKETING
Project Planning. The HOV marketing process should begin as
early as possible in the project planning stages with constituency
building activities and a review of the project's selling points
and shortcomings from a public relations standpoint. Too often in
the past, marketing personnel have been excluded from the inner
circle of project planners until the facility is nearing completion
and it's time to try to fill the lanes with ridesharers. As a
result, many opportunities for public participation in the planning
process are lost, and these lost opportunities can turn into
marketing problems when the project is implemented. Potential
marketing problems can often be identified and headed off by
including marketing personnel on planning and design teams.
Market Research. A variety of market research activities are
needed throughout the planning and implementation stages of an HOV
project. Early in the planning stages, market research can help to
define the social and political atmosphere In which the project
will be set, identify key stakeholding groups, and assemble
information on other HOV projects with similar goals, objectives,
or design characteristics. As the planning progresses, surveys and
group discussions can be used to identify public concerns and
expectations, test marketing concepts, and document the attitudes
and awareness of various target groups. Opinion surveys taken
during the project planning stages will provide baseline
comparisons for ongoing evaluations once the HOV lanes are
operating.
PROJECT OPENING
The concentration of marketing activities around the opening
of an HOV project represents the best understood and usually the
best executed portion of the HOV marketing process. This phase
calls for the careful orchestration of materials and events
designed to announce the opening, advertise the benefits of
ridesharing, and entice commuters to try carpooling or transit
riding. The marshalling of marketing activities about an
identifiable event, the project opening, most closely resembles
traditional advertising promotions and can include such familiar
activities as calendar count-downs, media blitzes, ribbon-cuttings,
press tours and public speeches.
ONGOING MARKETING
HOV marketing should not stop once a facility has opened.
Marketing should be an ongoing part of project operations, tracking
the advantages of lane use, announcing operational changes,
advertising support services such as park-and-ride lots or
ridematching programs, educating the changing commuter population,
answering public criticism, and creating realistic expectations for
the role of HOV facilities in the modern transportation network.
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1-21
INTRODUCTION 1
C. MARKETING FOR SUCCESS
2. BUILD CONSTITUENCIES
Partnerships offer citizens and organizations a formalized
role In shaping their future and Increase your ability to
communicate with more people, more frequently, using fewer
resources.
Moving individuals out of SOVs requires a significant behavior
change. Significant for the individual, for business and for
government. It takes a long term effort involving interagency
coordination and involvement from a variety of public and private
organizations.
interagency Coordination. Certain agencies and jurisdictions
must be involved from the start in planning and implementing HOV
lanes. In addition to the local transportation agency, these
include the state police or highway patrol; the planning, public
works, and traffic departments of affected local jurisdictions;
public transportation providers; ridesharing agencies; and regional
transportation organizations. A management team composed of these
agencies cannot only provide air integrated foundation for planning
and designing HOV facilities, but also a broad base of experience
for marketing these facilities.
Other Key Constituents: Other key constituents who must be
both consulted and educated in developing HOV facilities include
local political figures, the judiciary, community leaders, chamber
of commerce, business representatives, and media personnel. This
last group, media personnel, is of special importance. Talking to
the people who talk to the public is one of the most important
aspects of constituency building.
Marketing Partnerships: Aggressive solicitation of
"partnership" relationships with suitable organizations can
leverage your limited financial and staff resources and
significantly increase your marketing effectiveness. Partnership
support can be provided in the form of direct financial support, in
kind support such as printing, advertising, materials distribution,
providing staff hours, providing product, etc. Fundamental to the
success of any partnership program is the willingness on the part
of all public and private organizations active in this area to
coordinate resources, messages and schedules. Many organizations,
corporations and agencies promote parallel messages, so that you
can expand upon this HOV ethic by unifying these separate efforts
into a more cohensive marketing plan.
The following list of agencies and organizations is intended
to help you generate a prioritized list of potential partners for
aggressive recruitment.
1-22
1 -23
INTRODUCTION 1
C. MARKETING FOR SUCCESS
3. REFINE THE PRODUCT
Good HOV design can overcome poor marketing, but the best
marketing program In the world won't overcome poor design.
HOV projects are more likely to fail because of poor operating
policies, faulty design, or bad timing than because of poor
marketing. It is important to review potential pitfalls in the
planning stages in the hope that they can be corrected before an
HOV project becomes a public relations disaster or places an
impossible burden on marketing personnel. Potentially fatal
pitfalls in HOV design include:
- Insignificant time savings;
- The empty lane syndrome;
- Insufficient enforcement;
- Lack of support systems; and
- Disproportionate disadvantages for SOVs.
Insignificant Time Savings: HOV lanes should be considered
only where sufficient congestion already exists so that the need
for relief is recognized and an HOV lane can provide a significant
and reliable travel time savings for buses and carpoolers. Fuhs
(1990) notes that "The single most important predictor of the
success of an HOV lane is its ability to reduce travel time and to
generate reliable travel times to users." He goes on to provide the
following guidelines for mainline HOV lanes: "Time savings realized
by line-haul HOVs must be on the order of about one minute per mile
over a typical trip from origin to destination. A five-minute time
savings overall is considered a minimum, and a savings of eight
minutes is considered desirable."
Empty Lane Syndrome: Nothing threatens the public acceptance
of HOV lanes so much as the perception that they are underutilized.
As one state senator opposed to Hampton Roads Route 44 said, "I
don't think people would have been so mad if they'd seen a car in
there now and then." The HOV Planning, Operation, and Design Manual
(Fuhs, 1990), identifies a minimum of 400 to 800 vehicles per hour
during the peak period as the initial usage needed to avoid the
empty lane syndrome. Lane occupancy restrictions are the key
determinant of initial usage. In some special instances, metering
can also help to solve the problem of apparent underutilization.
The operations of the San Francisco/Oakland Bay Bridge HOV lanes
were initially characterized by low utilization and high violation
rates until meters were installed beyond the toll booths to
regulate flow and improve lane utilization across the bridge.
Insufficient Enforcement: The wholehearted cooperation of law
enforcement agencies in both planning and implementing HOV lanes is
essential if the lanes are to succeed. Without sufficient
enforcement, HOV lanes will soon become SOV lanes. The general
public needs to understand what will happen if they do not comply
with HOV lane requirements and believe that the risk of
apprehension is high and that penalties will be enforced if they
are caught violating HOV provisions.
Lack of Support Systems: Main-line HOV lanes should be
accompanied by support systems that complement their operations and
reinforce the rideshare message. Examples of such systems include
park-and-ride lots, express bus service, HOV bypass lanes on
metered ramps, ridematching services, and preferential parking for
carpools in congested areas.
1-24
INTRODUCTION 1
C. MARKETING FOR SUCCESS
3. REFINE THE PRODUCT
EXHIBIT: EXTREME EXAMPLE OF THE EMPTY LANE SYNDROME
Source: Los Angeles Times Coverage of the Santa Monica
Diamond L
Disproportionate Disadvantages for Non-Carpoolers. In the case
of both the Santa Monica Diamond Lanes (Appendix A-4) and the
Dulles Toll Road (Appendix A-6), non-carpoolers were significantly
disadvantaged by the installation of HOV lanes. Their commute
trips lengthened considerably and the total time lost by SOVs
exceeded the time saved by HOVS. In both instances, this proved to
be a recipe for disaster, as politicians and the media correctly
perceived that the number of disadvantaged SOVs exceeded the number
of carpoolers and took action to redress the "wrong" done to the
majority of their constituents.
1-25
INTRODUCTION 1
C. MARKETING FOR SUCCESS
4. RESPECT THE SINGLE OCCUPANT VEHICLE
HOV lanes which leave non-carpoolers measurably worse off
haven't fared well. Neither have marketing campaigns which attack
the solo driver.
As noted in the previous section, HOV lane designs which leave
non-carpoolers measurably worse off than they were before lane
implementation have generally not fared well. This is particularly
true when non-carpoolers lose far more than their carpoolers gain,
either because of additional congestion in the mixed flow lanes or
because the carpool lanes are under-utilized. In a similar
fashion, marketing campaigns that attack the SOV as a menace to
society have not been remarkably successful.
As an example, the Virginia DOT used a villainous cartoon
character called "The Lone Rider"to publicize new HOV lanes in the
Hampton Roads area (see Appendix A-3). Through focus group
discussions, it was learned that the Lone Rider generated little
recognition and less credibility-among area commuters. The
accompanying exhibit depicts the cartoon image of the Lone Rider, a
masked bandit driving his car all by himself. Typical ad copy
reads: "DON't BE A LONE RIDER! SHARE A RIDE TO WORK AND ENJOY THE
BENEFITS!" This concept attempted to make "bad guys" out of the
majority of the drivers in the Hampton Roads area using the image
of the Lone Ranger (who was, after all, a "good guy.") Leaving
aside the bad-guy/good-guy confusion, the concept failed for more
basic reasons. In the first place, it was impossible to establish
the identity of the character in the public's mind using the
limited air time and print exposure available to donated public
service messages.
Even if Virginia had spent the money to establish the Lone
Rider's identity,, focus groups showed that the image didn't
register credibly with the general driving public because SOV
drivers do not commonly characterize themselves as the bad guys.
Most think of themselves and other drivers as hapless victims of
population growth and traffic congestion. In developing HOV
marketing campaigns, it's important to avoid themes that cast the
SOV driver in a negative light. Rather, marketers should strive to
develop imagery that reinforces the positive benefits of
ridesharing. That's not to say that the negative aspects of SOV
driving can't be stressed. But the SOV drivers themselves are the
ones you are trying to reach with campaign messages, so it's a bad
idea to start out by insulting them.
The most important group to be targeted by an HOV marketing
campaign contains those individuals who currently drive alone in
the HOV corridor but who are likely candidates for future carpools.
It is essential to recognize that this group is likely to represent
a relatively small proportion occurrent drivers. A survey
conducted in advance of HOV lanes on the Long Island Expressway
(Bloch, et al., 1994) found that only twenty percent of existing
expressway users were willing to consider carpooling as an option.
Market research conducted prior to the opening of I-394 in
Minneapolis determined that only ten percent of existing corridor
users would consider switching to carpooling or busing when the
Express Lanes were complete. (Strgar-Roscoe-Fausch, Inc., 1986).
Market research can help to identify the population most
likely to shift to carpooling and isolate he messages most likely
to appeal to members of that population. The more information that
marketers can obtain about their primary audience, the easier it is
to target the media to reach that audience. Generally, the two
most important audience characteristics for media purposes are age
and gender. In the case of Minneapolis I-394, for example, female
drive-alones under 35 represented the most likely target for a
shift to ridesharing.
Market research can also isolate the barriers to ridesharing
perceived by solo drivers. The accompanying exhibit documents the
perceptions of ridesharing modes revealed by a survey of solo
drivers in California's Santa Clara County (Crain & Associates,
1984).
1-26
INTRODUCTION 1
C. MARKETING FOR SUCCESS
4. RESPECT THE SINGLE OCCUPANT VEHICLE
EXHIBIT: RIDESHARING PERCEPTIONS OF SOLO DRIVERS IN SANTA CLARA
COUNTY, CALIFORNIA
Source: Crain & Associates, 1984
Percent of Solo Drivers
Perception Sharing Perception
1. Time is all important 79%
2. Might take the bus (it routes and schedules fit) 68%
3. Carpooling doesn't work 57%
4. Want car available during day 56%
5. Too many hassles with other carpoolers 55%
6. Might rideshare on some (but not all) days 50%
7. Need car as part of job 47%
8. Never think of ridesharing 37%
9. Situation (childcare, education) precludes ridesharing 25%
10. Suburban transit won't work 23%
11. Commuter lanes don't work 17%
12. Buses are undependable 12%
13. Dislike caliber of bus riders 12%
14. Diehard car lover 10%
15. Afraid to use transit 9%
1-27
INTRODUCTION 1
C. MARKETING FOR SUCCESS
5. DEVELOP A MARKETING PLAN
The question is not: How do we reach the largest number of
people with the same message?
The question is: How, when, where, and with what message do we
communicate to these non-carpoolers with the best likelihood of
becoming ridesharers?
CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
Setting Campaign Objectives: The first step in undertaking an
HOV marketing campaign is the setting of well-defined objectives.
Objectives may be broad ("Increase regionwide acceptance of
ridesharing") or narrow ("Cause carpooling on I-394 to increase by
fifteen percent"). However, they should be defined explicitly,
since the development of campaign strategies, from the definition
of target audiences to the selection of media channels, will be
tied to these objectives.
Identifying Key Issues. Key issues surrounding HOV lanes
typically involve such topics as congestion, mobility, safety,
equity, and ecology. It is important to identify these issues and
develop positioning statements capable of focusing marketing
activities and developing realistic project expectations. Stamm
(1991) emphasizes the importance of developing realistic
expectations.
"Unrealistic public expectations can be extremely damaging to
the credibility and morale of the organization undertaking the HOV
project. They can also erode public confidence in the
organization's ability to carry out it's mission. On the other
hand, when the public (and the public's designated decision makers,
such as elected officials, local jurisdictions staff, etc) has been
included in the planning process, expectations are much more likely
to accurately reflect the goals, objectives and expected benefits
and outcomes of the project."
Defining Target Audiences. Its is essential that the primary
and secondary audiences for the marketing campaign be well defined
and carefully targeted. As noted, the primary audience is likely
to be composed of SOV drivers who are predisposed toward
ridesharing.
MARKETING MATERIALS
Range and Content. The accompanying exhibit displays the
range of potential HOV marketing materials, along with an
indication of the appropriate content and the likely target
audience. Printed materials include brochures, newsletters,
flyers, newspaper and magazine ads, and posters. Electronic media
channels include radio and television spots, while outdoor
advertising formats include roadside signs and billboards. A wide
variety of premiums such as key fobs, bumper strips, post-it notes,
balloons, matchbooks, coffee mugs, and jam jars have also been used
to encourage the use of HOV lanes.
Thematic and Graphic Consistency. The key to achieving
consistency in developing marketing materials is to translate
campaign objectives into an easily recognizable theme (both verbal
and graphic) which Will serve as a cornerstone for the media
efforts. First, the project should be given a "public" title.
This title should be brief and accurate. Research has shown that
few drivers refer to carpool lanes as HOV lanes. The public is
much more likely to understand and identify with more descriptive
titles such as the Sane Lane (the early title for Minneapolis I-
394), Express Lanes (Minneapolis, San Diego, Seattle, and others),
Diamond Lanes (Santa Monica and others), Carpool Lanes (Los
Angeles, Orange, and Riverside Counties in California), or
Transitways (Houston).
Use of Radio: Radio offers several advantages as a
communications medium for an HOV marketing campaign. It is
relatively inexpensive, is easily targeted, versatile, personal,
and reaches a captive audience of drivers at a time when they are
experiencing the congestion HOV lanes are designed to relieve. HOV
marketers report that one of the most effective means of reaching
the audience of drivealone commuters is through live-on-the-air
"reads" by traffic reporters. These messages not only reach
drivers during their commute (and sound like reporting rather than
the public service messages) but also improve the reporters' views
of HOV lanes.
1-28
1-29
INTRODUCTION 1
C. MARKETING FOR SUCCESS
6. MONITOR AND EVALUATE
HOV projects should undergo thorough evaluations which can
both guide and feed the marketing campaign.
The evaluation of an HOV marketing program must inevitably be
tied to the evaluation of the HOV project itself. The information
collected in evaluating the project can be used to guide marketing
efforts and help direct operating decisions regarding enforcement,
operating hours, occupancy requirements, and access/egress points.
This information can also be incorporated in the marketing campaign
through press releases and articles advertising travel time savings
and HOV lane use.
MONITORING THE PROJECT
The HOV project itself needs to be monitored on a regular
basis to provide timely information on project progress and
assemble data on the wide range of potential project impacts. In
the past, several HOV lane evaluations have focused on narrow
objectives (i.e., counting the vehicles in the carpool lane).
However, the range of potential impacts for any HOV project is too
broad to be covered by simple vehicle counts and requires a wide
range of measurements that includes travel time runs, vehicle and
occupancy counts, accident statistics, enforcement data, transit
performance data, user and non-user surveys, and air quality
measurements. Key information should be monitored quarterly (but
no less than annually--see Exhibit) before and after project
implementation in accordance with a formal evaluation plan that
relates measurement processes and analytic activities to project
objectives.
MONITORING THE CAMPAIGN
HOV marketing campaigns should be evaluated at three different
levels:
1. EXPOSURE: WHO was reached by the campaign?
This first level of evaluation documents promotional
approaches, tabulates the size of the audience reached by
each approach and gauges the success of the campaign in
reaching members of the target population.
2. REACTION: DID the public understand and remember the
message?
This second level of evaluation investigates public
reaction to the campaign. Typically, group discussions
and surveys might be used to determine how many people
remembered the campaign, liked it, understood its
message, and followed its suggestions.
3. IMPACT: WHAT was the campaign's effect on the Project
objectives?
This third level of evaluation documents the effect of
the campaign on project objectives. it is at this point
that the evaluation of the campaign directly intersects
the evaluation of the HOV project itself, as changing
travel patterns are documented and the influence of the
marketing campaign on these changes is evaluated.
Each successive level of evaluation is progressively more
difficult and more complex than the preceding level, and each level
depends on the successful accomplishment of the earlier steps.
Without some knowledge of whether the public has heard and
understood a campaign message, it makes little sense to try to
attribute changes in HOV carpooling levels to that message.
DEFENDING YOUR DATA
Even the most successful of HOV projects can attract a wide
spectrum of public criticism. Critics from the right of the
spectrum, seeing HOV lanes as half empty, will argue that public
funds have been misused creating a facility that does not operate
at peak efficiency and whose use is denied to most of the
1-30
taxpaying public. Critics from the left of the spectrum, seeing
HOV lanes as half full, will argue that they are just another ruse
to encourage additional auto travel, increase urban sprawl, and
worsen air pollution.
When critics attack an HOV project, they almost inevitably
attack the data developed by the project's sponsors as well. The
best defense against such attacks is to develop a detailed
evaluation plan, get multi-agency "buy-in" for the plan, and follow
it. It is often helpful to empower or employ a locally respected,
unbiased, third party (such as a university, expert panel, or
consulting firm) to develop and implement the evaluation plan.
While a detailed evaluation strategy will not stop critics from
attacking project data, it lowers the probability that they will
find embarrassing inconsistencies or errors in that data, or that
they can claim that reported findings are biased.
To discourage attacks on data credibility, a single outlet
should be established for data dissemination. Project information
should be released through the outlet on a schedule set by the
sponsoring agencies that allows data to be assimilated, checked for
consistency and accuracy, and thoroughly evaluated before it is
released. Project personnel should not attempt to hide or gloss
over negative findings (i.e. accidents, violations, or low HOV lane
use), but should report the findings along with positive results.
The use of an independent evaluator to assess HOV lane impacts can
sometimes help to establish the credibility of performance data and
project findings, as can the establishment of a multi-agency group
with oversight responsibility for reviewing evaluation results.
1-31
SECTION TWO
PLANNING
THE CAMPAIGN
2-1
PLANNING 2
A. MARKET RESEARCH
1. OVERVIEW
Market research is needed before and during HOV projects to
define the social and political atmosphere, Identify stakeholders,
document travel behavior, test marketing concepts, and measure the
attitudes and awareness of various target groups.
A variety of market research activities are needed throughout
the planning and implementation stages of an HOV project. Early in
the planning stages, market research can help to define the social
and political atmosphere in which the project will be set, identify
key stakeholding groups, and assemble information on other HOV
projects with similar goals, objectives, or design characteristics.
As the planning progresses, surveys and group discussions can be
used to identify public concerns and expectations, test marketing
concepts, and document the attitudes and awareness of various
target groups. Opinion surveys taken during the project planning
stages will provide baseline comparisons for ongoing evaluations
once the HOV lanes are operating.
Several research tools are available for developing market
information. The tools most used in planning and evaluating HOV
lanes are listed below and summarized in the accompanying exhibit.
Focus Groups: A focus group discussion is a flexible research
technique used to gather qualitative or exporatory information
regarding individual perceptions of an idea or product. Small
groups (usually eight to twelve people) freely discuss a set
of predetermined topics under the guidance of a trained
moderator. Focus groups are useful for sampling driver
opinion and attitudes regarding HOV lanes, testing marketing
concepts and exploring public concerns and expectations in
some depth.
Telephone Surveys: Telephone surveys are accomplished by
trained interviewers following a predetermined script with a
statistically sampled population of residents or drivers.
Telephone surveys can be used to gather travel information and
data, measure public opinions and attitudes, document
awareness regarding HOV projects and marketing campaigns;
record mode shifts; and track project acceptance over time.
Mail-Back Driver Surveys. Short questionnaires are either
distributed to drivers at sampling stations such as freeway
on-ramps or mailed to the registered owners of vehicles whose
license plates were recorded using the project corridor.
Mail-back surveys can be used to document attitudes, develop
origin/destination data, and document mode and route shifts.
On-Board Surveys: Questionnaires are distributed to transit
riders as they board the vehicle and either collected when
they leave or returned by mail. These surveys serve the same
purpose for transit riders that mail-back surveys do for
corridor drivers.
Executive Interviews: Face-to-face interviews with opinion
leaders and decision makers are conducted to gauge the
perceptions of key groups regarding HOV projects and identify
institutional issues. These interviews, which last
approximately one hour, are also useful for establishing
liaisons with business and political leaders as part of the
constituency building process.
The accompanying exhibit lists the primary advantages and
disadvantages of each of these approaches and provides some order-
of-magnitude information on cost ranges and likely survey response
rates. Each of these market research tools has its particular
uses, and all can be employed to advantage in marketing and
evaluating a particular HOV project. Subsequent subsections
discuss these tools in more detail.
2-2
2-3
PLANNING 2
A. MARKET RESEARCH
2. PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
Preliminary market research activities Include library work,
Informal conversations, examinations of related campaigns, and a
review of similar projects.
"If you steal from one author, it's plagiarism,, if you steal
from many, it's research. "
Wilson Mizner
This handbook is designed to help individual practitioners
start their own market research activities by reviewing relevant
literature, contacting experts in the field, examining related
campaign materials, and studying similar HOV projects throughout
the U.S.
Literature Review: A thorough literature search should be the
first market research activity undertaken on any project. The
bibliography of Appendix E contains references to reports on
relevant HOV marketing activities, as well as selected HOV
project evaluations and studies of a variety of HOV issues.
In addition to formal reports, local news clippings,
transportation plans, clean air ordinances, speeches, and
voting records should also be reviewed.
Expert Advice. Conversations with individuals experienced in
HOV planning and marketing may help to clarify specific
concerns. Appendix E contains the names of several such
individuals, including marketing consultants with HOV
experience, planners in,charge of overseeing HOV projects, and
public information specialists responsible for marketing HOV
lanes at the state and local levels.
Related Campaign Materials: Sample materials from past and
ongoing ridesharing campaigns and HOV marketing efforts are
used as illustrations throughout this manual. (The
accompanying exhibit shows a ridesharing poster that preceded
HOV marketing efforts in the U.S.) Appendix B contains
additional examples of marketing materials, while Appendix D
presents sample survey forms and formats for executive
interviews and focus group discussions.
Project Data: Appendix C contains data describing current HOV
projects in North America, as assembled by the Transportation
Research Board's Committee on HOV Lanes.
2-4
2-5
PLANNING 2
A. MARKET RESEARCH
3. FOCUS GROUPS
Focus group discussions can provide rich In-depth lnsight Into
public concerns regarding design Issues, highlight driver attitudes
and convictions, and flag promising and unpromising marketing
approaches.
A focus group discussion is a flexible research technique used
to gather rich, in-depth data in a relatively unstructured manner.
Discussion groups of eight to twelve people are allowed to interact
freely on a set of predetermined topics under the direction of a
trained group leader. The resulting interpersonal interactions can
be quite informative, particularly when the topics address issues,
such as HOV lane operation, which inherently contain a high degree
of public interest.
Because focus groups are relatively small, they are not
designed to provide precise statistical quantification of the
issues under discussion. Rather, they are designed to explore key
issues in greater depth and highlight related attitudes and
convictions. In-depth insights are obtained at the expense of the
precise quantification available through the larger sample sizes of
survey research. The insights obtained through focus group
discussions can, however, be applied in the development of formal
surveys designed to permit more precise statistical quantification
of key issues.
Uses. In marketing HOV lanes, focus groups can be used
effectively to pre-test marketing materials, probe awareness of
past campaigns, sample driver opinions and attitudes regarding HOV
lanes, and explore public concerns and convictions in some depth.
For these purposes, focus group participants could be composed of
corridor drivers, employee organizations, carpoolers, community
leaders, survey respondents, or other targeted groups.
Abuses: While focus groups are relatively easy to manage, they
yield subjective information and should not be used to support
quantitative estimates or rank alternatives. They are most
effective in exploring the direct experience and reactions of
participants, and less effective in addressing in addressing
hypothetical issues with which the participants have no direct
experience. "Would you buy a dog that flies?" is an example of a
question which isn't likely to produce fruitful focus group
results. "How would you react if we took a lane away from one of
your busy freeways and dedicated it to carpools?" is another
question which is more likely to generate polarized responses, but
little insight, unless the participants have direct experience with
a lane conversion project.
Examples: Several state DOTS, including those in Virginia and
Washington, have used focus groups effectively to test HOV
marketing materials. The Appendix A case studies of Hampton Roads
I-64 and Seattle I-5 contain examples of this use. CALTRANS has
used focus groups to explore public attitudes toward HOV lane
conversion (Gard, et al., 1993) and HOV lane enforcement
(Billheimer, 1990).
An example of a focus group protocol used in exploring driver
attitudes toward HOV lane operation and enforcement appears in
Appendix D. The protocol was designed to provide first-hand, in-
depth responses to key issues regarding public perceptions of HOV
use, enforcement activities, and violations on two Southern
California freeways (State Route 91 and Orange County Route 55),
and two Northern California Freeways (Marin Route 101 and Santa
Clara Route 101). At one point in each of these focus groups,
participants were asked to list a series of adjectives describing
their carpool lane. The accompanying exhibit lists the results of
this exercise.
Drivers in Southern California had a more negative view of
their lanes than Northern California drivers. The words "scary"
and "dangerous" recurred when drivers described the two Southern
California lanes (Orange County Route 55 and State Route 91), but
were not mentioned at all by Northern California drivers using
Santa Clara 101 and Marin 101. The features mentioned by drivers
finding the Southern California lanes "scary" were (1) the speed
differential, (2) the threat of people pulling into the lane
unsafely, and (3) the nearby Jersey barrier, which was right next
to the two Southern California-carpool lanes.
2-6
One State Route 91 driver noted:
"It's nervous driving (on State Route 91) when you have cars
virtually standing still and you're driving at 60 mph. The
differential speed makes for very nervous driving. And the ever-
present threat of people pulling in ... that's scary."
A carpooler on Orange County Route 55 found the lane so nerve-
wracking that he didn't use it, even though he was qualified to do
so.
"In the carpool lane you have on one side of you the fast
lane, which is not really fast...and in the other direction you
have a block wall When somebody cuts in front of a person in the
carpool lane, they've really only got one way to go and that's
either to crash into the person, or go into somebody else's lane,
or go into a block wall."
On Santa Clara Route 101, where a 10-foot median lane
separates carpoolers from the Jersey barrier, none of the
participating drivers volunteered the words "scary" or "dangerous"
in describing the carpool lane. Although Marin 101 has no median
lane, the speed differential separating the carpool lane from
general traffic was not nearly so great as on the other three study
lanes. Marin drivers were more concerned with under-utilization of
their HOV lane.
"Empty. That's the perfect word. You're sitting there and
you're mad because you see a car go by every two minutes, at 60
mph, and you're doing 25.
2-7
PLANNING 2
A. MARKET RESEARCH
4. TELEPHONE SURVEYS
Telephone surveys allow a more precise quantification of key
questions than focus group research. They can be used to gather
travel data, measure public opinions, document campaign awareness,
record modal shifts, and track project acceptance over time.
A well-designed and carefully executed telephone survey can
document public reaction to HOV lanes and marketing campaigns with
statistical precision and provide insights into the relative
effectiveness of different campaign messages and media channels.
Telephone surveys can be used to gather travel information and
data, measure public opinions and attitudes, document awareness
regarding HOV projects and marketing campaigns, record modal
shifts, and track project acceptance over time.
Sample Sizes: A minimum of 400 surveys is generally necessary
to guarantee that measured responses are within five percent of the
true state of affairs. If the survey sample is to be subdivided
significantly during the analysis, larger sample sizes may be
necessary. Uncertainties regarding appropriate sample sizes should
be resolved by consulting a statistician.
Population Definitions: If the population to be polled
resides in a particular geographic area, a straightforward means of
sampling is to draw telephone numbers at random from all the phone
books covering that area. To ensure that unlisted numbers have the
same chance of being reached as listed numbers, add a"l" to the
last digit of the number drawn from the phone book sample. (Lists
of randomly generated phone numbers for specific areas can also be
purchased from firms specializing in providing this information.)
it Will usually be necessary to screen persons answering the phone
to ensure that only licensed drivers are interviewed, and that a
representative sampling of males and females is obtained.
If the population to be sampled consists of drivers using a
particular corridor (or, more specifically, carpoolers in a
particular HOV lane), it can be inefficient to phone residents at
random trying to find drivers meeting the criteria. A more direct
means of reaching such narrowly defined populations is to sample
license plates along the route in question, use Department of Motor
Vehicles (DMV) records to identify the registered owners of the
observed vehicles, and look up the phone numbers of these owners.
While this approach has been used effectively in some studies, it
is not without problems. Barriers to this approach can include DMV
privacy laws, unlisted phone numbers, leased vehicles, and
ambiguous phone listings. In a recent polling of HOV lane users in
the San Francisco Bay Area (Billheimer, 1990), it was necessary to
videotape four license plates for every usable phone number
generated.
Survey Content: Copies of sample questionnaires from a
sampling of HOV lane surveys may be found in Appendix D. Typically,
these surveys consist of the following major elements.
1. Introduction and Freeway Use: Introductory remarks
designed to screen for licensed drivers who use the
particular freeway and document the current extent of
that use (i.e., How long have they used Marin 101 ? How
often? As carpooler or lone driver?).
2. Perceptions: Questions designed to explore drivers'
perceptions of such key issues as fairness, travel times,
and HOV lane enforcement. The accompanying exhibit
charts the response of Southern California drivers asked
whether they agreed or disagreed with the statement "it
is unfair to have special freeway lanes set aside for
buses and carpools." Over eighty percent of the
respondents (carpoolers and non-carpoolers alike)
disagreed with this statement.
2-8
3. Campaign Awareness (Unaided Recall). Questions designed to
probe, with no prompting, respondents' general awareness of
recent HOV marketing campaigns.
4. Specific Awareness (Aided Recall). Questions designed to
probe, through prompting, respondent awareness and
understanding of HOV campaign materials and lane operations.
Awareness of such specific issues as enforcement, violations,
and fines can also be tested.
5. Personal History vis-a-vis Carpool Lanes. Specific questions
designed to document any changes in travel time, route, trip
timing, or carpool formation resulting from the introduction
of HOV lanes or associated marketing campaigns. This may
include questions regarding illegal use of the lane and
personal citations for illegal use.
6. Opinions and Attitudes. Questions designed to document
drivers' opinions of the HOV lanes themselves and explore
pubic attitudes toward any contemplated changes in lane
operations (i.e., carpool definition, operating hours, etc.).
7. Demographics. Questions designed to document the age, sex, and
auto ownership status of the respondents.
2-9
PLANNING 2
A. MARKET RESEARCH
5. MAIL-BACK SURVEYS
Mail-back surveys can be distributed directly to corridor
drivers to sample awareness and attitudes, develop origin/
destination data, and document route and mode shifts.
Mail-back surveys consist of questionnaires which are either
distributed to drivers at sampling stations such as freeway on-
ramps or mailed to the registered owners of vehicles whose license
plates were recorded using the project corridor. Samples of such
surveys appear in Appendix D. Mail-back surveys have been used
effectively to sample awareness and attitudes, develop
origin/destination data, and document route and mode shifts.
Mail-back surveys can range from simple post-cards designed to
capture origin/destination data (see Exhibit) to more elaborate
two-page questionnaires documenting awareness, attitudes, 6ommute
choices, and demographic characteristics. Typically, the longer
the questionnaire, the lower the response rate. Reported response
rates for mail-back questionnaires used to monitor HOV projects
range from 200% to 40%.
The advantage of mail-back questionnaires is that they can be
distributed directly to the driving population in the corridors
affected by proposed or existing HOV projects. While it is more
difficult to track campaign awareness through mail-back surveys
than through telephone surveys (unaided recall cannot easily be
tested through mail-back surveys, for instance), issues regarding
perceptions, attitudes, and mode choice can be pursued equally well
by mail or by phone. Beginning in 1985, Houston has regularly used
mail-back surveys to track motorist attitudes regarding their
system of HOV transitways, opinions regarding transitory
effectiveness, perceptions of time savings, and self-reported
impacts of the transitways on mode choice (Bullard, 1991). Both
Seattle and Orange County, California have used mailback surveys to
record HOV lane acceptance among carpoolers and non-carpoolers.
CALTRANS and the California Highway Patrol have used mail-back
surveys to track driver awareness of enforcement and violations
before and after waves of HOV lane enforcement (Billheimer, 1990).
2-10
2-11
PLANNING 2
A. MARKET RESEARCH
6. EXECUTIVE INTERVIEWS
Executive Interviews can help to gauge transit market
Interest, Identify Institutional Issues, establish community
expectations, predict political reactions, and lay the groundwork
for future liaison with opinion leaders and decision makers.
Face-to-face interviews with opinion leaders and decision
makers regarding planned HOV projects can be useful in gauging
target market interest, group perceptions, community expectations,
and likely political reaction. These interviews can also help to
establish liaisons with business and political leaders as part of
the important process of constituency building.
Participants in executive interviews "...should be selected
based on their roles in the community, interest in the subject, and
potential impact they could have on the study's outcome." (Stamm,
1991). The list of potential candidates for executive interviewers
includes:
- elected officials
- business leaders
- community activists
- newspaper editors
- radio and television news directors
- chamber of commerce representatives
- tracking representatives
Once candidates have been selected, they are contacted by mail to
request their participation in the interview process. Interviews
should be carefully scripted, held to approximately one hour, and
conducted in person at the participant's office or location of the
participant's choice.
A sample Executive Interview script, drawn from the work of
Pacific Rim Resources in studying Arterial HOV Alternatives in
Snohomish County, Washington appears in Appendix D.
The interview requests feedback on HOV system components and
design issues; elicits perceptions of HOV market potential,
attempts to identify major public, institutional, any media
challenges, and concludes asking interviewees whether they would be
interested in participating in the project by reviewing and/or
communicating study fundings.
As in the case of focus groups, executive interviews provide
in-depth insights, but have no statistical validity. As with focus
groups, however, they can be used effectively in conjunction with
more rigorous statistical sampling approaches such as telephone
surveys. In a study of HOV facility design for Pierce County,
Washington, telephone interviews suggested that the general public
was likely to be more accepting of ramp metering and HOV treatments
than community leaders expected (SR-16, SR-512/SR-167 HOV Facility
Design Study Memorandum #6: Public Involvement).
2-12
PLANNING 2
A. MARKET RESEARCH
6. EXECUTIVE INTERVIEWS
EXHIBIT: PURPOSE OF EXECUTIVE INTERVIEWS
CONCERNING HOV LANES
- HEIGHTEN VISIBILITY AND VIABILITY of HOV treatments as an
effective traffic congestion management technique.
- ASSESS ATTITUDES regarding a variety of HOV treatments: where
Is there the greatest consensus and where are there the
greatest differences?
- IDENTIFY OPPORTUNITIES for regional partnership In building
community awareness and support for this study, as well as HOV
treatments in general.
- IDENTIFY ANY SPECIFIC INSTITUTIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL CONCERNS
regarding the study, as well as HOV treatments in general.
- OBTAIN INFORMATION about the communications challenges
foreseen by the community/institutional leaders and solicit
their assistance facilitating broader communication of the
study process and ultimate outcomes.
Source: I-80/I-287 Feasibility Study, NJDOT
2-13
PLANNING 2
A. MARKET RESEARCH
7. TRAFFIC MEASUREMENTS
Counts of the current number of carpools In a corridor
targeted for HOV treatment give the most reliable basis for
estimating early HOV lane usage, provide baseline measures for 15
future elevations, and can alert marketers to potential pitfalls.
As soon as a corridor has been singled out as a promising
location for future HOV treatment, existing corridor traffic should
be monitored to determine whether such treatments are likely to
succeed, and if so, to identify the potential design, operating,
and marketing problems presented by HOV lanes. Chapter 4,
conveying project evaluation covers traffic monitoring issues in
some detail (See Section 4-C, "Monitoring the Project.") At a
minimum, the initial measurement process should ascertain:
Traffic volumes and speeds at points along the corridor
(including both primary and parallel routes) during peak hours
and peak periods
Vehicle occupancy rates, reflecting the number of 2+ and 3+
vehicles in the traffic stream during the peak operating
periods. Again, counts should include both primary and
parallel routes.
Typical origin-destination-patterns, including average trip
lengths and trip times.
Congestion measurements, including the location and deviation
of congestion and the identification of bottlenecks.
Transit and rideshare patronage, particularly those existing
operations which could benefit from an HOV facility.
Future demand projections, including growth factors for the
corridor and parallel routes.
Design limitations of the existing freeway facility.
The above measurements have been adapted from "High-Occupancy
Vehicle Facilities, A Planning, Design, and Operation Manual"
(Fuhs, 1990) which cautions that "candidate corridors should have
enough congestion, offer adequate travel time savings, exhibit
sufficient demand, and have reasonable potential for successful
implementation and operation."
Counts of the current number of carpools in a corridor
targeted for HOV treatment give the most reliable basis for
estimating preferential lane usage during the start-up phase and
provide a baseline measure for future evaluations. Techniques for
translating the existing carpool population into future HOV lane
use may be found in the "Planning, Design, and Operation Manual"
cited above. Projections of future HOV lane use are just as
important for marketing personnel as they are for planners. If,
for example, initial usage projections suggest that fewer than 400
vehicles will be using the lane during the peak hour, marketing
personnel will have to contend with the "empty lane syndrome" while
demand builds. If initial design projections suggest that non-
carpoolers will lose far more time than carpoolers gain, marketing
personnel can expect to be faced with a serious outcry from drivers
of single-occupant vehicles, followed shortly by howls from their
elected representatives. Few HOV projects have managed to survive
the onslaught that results if single auto drivers are
disproportionately inconvenienced or fail to see a substantative
improvement as a result of the HOV lanes.
2-14
2-15
PLANNING 2
2-15
PLANNING
B. CONSTITUENCY BUILDING
1. OVERVIEW
To build constituencies successfully, you must address the
specific needs of targeted audiences.
The goal of this section is to help develop a constituency
building program as part of an overall public information plan.
The following pages will provide a framework to secure broad-based
support for HOV systems. The section is also designed to help
gather information and solicit support of media, environmental
groups, other agencies and potential users.
A well-executed constituency building program can:
Ensure that the concept and design of the facility is
compatible with the physical, social and aesthetic character
of the impacted communities;
Provide a basis for citizen support of changes in zoning,
conditional use, and other matters affecting development and
implementation;
Help avoid costly delays that result from protracted or
unresolved conflicts;
Accommodate the opinions and viewpoints of dissimilar
constituencies;
Instill a spirit of cooperation and trust;
Establish a reservoir of goodwill and cooperation that carries
over into future activities.
Gather Information and Analyze the Situation
In planning communication strategies it is first necessary to
establish several truths about your audience(s). You will be
targeting an extremely diverse audience. Questions that need to be
answered include: Who (specifically) is the audience? What do they
know about HOVs and how do they feel about them? What other
circumstances could impact their decisions? What do they know about
you and how do they feel about you? What specifically do you want
from them--increased knowledge, legislation or commitment to change
behavior? What form of communication should be used that is most
effective and efficient in reaching that audience?
Preliminary briefings are recommended to ensure that everyone
who should be involved and informed is updated. Key staff and
elected official briefings will provide essential guidance and
coordination in developing a constituency building process.
Deliver the Right Message, to the Right Person, In-the Right Place-
at the Right Time, In the Right Way!
After you have analyzed the information you have gathered, you
must develop a public information plan.
1. Segment your audiences by common interests and priority
to the success of the project
2. Determine the results (action you want from them,
knowledge you want them to have) you want from your
communications efforts
3. Provide the information that will be of most interest to
that audience
4. Identify the most effective location to provide
information to them; work, home, public facility-
5. Determine the most effective communications tool for
those individuals and that location
6. Identify the most important intervals in the process to
communicate with them
7. Communication programs should be coordinated, consistent
and interesting-to your audiences.
2-16
2-17
PLANNING 2
B. CONSTITUENCY BUILDING
2. DATABASE DEVELOPMENT
Knowing your audience has always been vital. Keeping track of
them has always been difficult. Communicating with them
individually has always been next to impossible, until now.
Each individual and each organization will have strong
opinions about your project, each will also have a different level
of understanding. You can't treat each group or each individual
the same. Mass communication methods are no longer adequate to
communicate to an ever increasing and diverse audience.
Keeping Track
Computers have made it possible to understand and communicate
with each of these-individuals and organizations on a one-to-one
basis. But to understand your audience, provide them adequate
information and enjoy the maximum benefit of their support, you
must keep track of them.
Create and maintain a database of individuals and
organizations with whom you need to keep contact. Update the list
frequently to make sure that you are reflecting the changing
segments of the community. The database is not just for printing
labels. You will want to understand the reasons for each
individual's interest and be able to separate individuals with
common interests. You will want to know whether an individual
represents themselves or a large organization. You will want to be
able to recall what materials, meetings and other communications
have transpired with each individual and group.
We all expect that our government is listening to us, that our
opinions are being heard and considered. Now more than ever, we
have the opportunity to honor that expectation and communicate with
our constituents on a one-to-one level.
It will also be useful to develop an inventory of local public
involvement coordination opportunities. Throughout the project
corridor, activities related to local transportation efforts are
being planned. A central inventory will help identify
opportunities to share and coordinate common efforts. These should
include planning and public works departments as well as
recreational and cultural activities such as annual fairs and
festivals.
Suggestions for fields you may want to create in your database
appear in the accompanying exhibit.
2-18
2-19
PLANNING
B. CONSTITUENCY BUILDING
3. EDUCATIONAL WORKSHOPS
It Is necessary to share Information and obtain Input from key
Individuals and groups. Hosting educational workshops or
charrettes will facilitate these objectives.
Tell me and I will forget.
Show me and I will remember
Teach me and I will understand.
Proverb
Once you have "qualified your leads" (identified those
individuals, groups and agencies that have expressed interest in
hands-on involvement) educational workshops should be considered.
Timing
These workshops should be held early in the planning process
to help identify--_ potential opportunities, critical issues, and
potentially fatal flaws. Depending on the size of the project it
may be necessary to hold several workshops, each focusing on
different constituent segments.
Participation
Participation in the workshops should be by invitation and
include individuals such as community and business leaders, elected
officials, state, federal and regional agencies and transportation
planners, special interest groups, environmental groups, tribes,
etc.
Objectives of the Educational Workshg2
1. Disseminate information
2. Invite the early participation by the affected public,
governments, agencies, organizations
3. Identify significant issues and strategies to address
them
4. Seek commitment for partnership activities
5. Identify other potential constituents
Planning
Workshop planning should include development of a theme,
objectives, agenda (see Exhibit), workshop design, publicity,
advance questionnaires, participant packets, and visual support-
matedals, and an invitation list. Other preliminary activities
include the selection of locations, the recruitment of speakers and
facilitators, and the development of education criteria.
In many cases one workshop with ongoing communication with
participants will be adequate. However, if there are too many
issues to be addressed in the time available or if situations arise
unexpectedly during the project so that it becomes necessary to
alter the course of actions, it may be wise to assemble these
groups again.
Speakers and workshop facilitators should be recruited to
represent a cross section of constituents. Transportation
organization leaders, elected officials, community leaders,
Department of Transportation staff, representatives of impacted
agencies such as parks, military or air quality, and consultants
should be considered.
Before the meeting is held, provide the following information
to those invited:
- Date, time and location of the workshop
- Description of the project
- Information on objectives of the workshop
2-20
PLANNING 2
B. CONSTITUENCY BUILDING
3. EDUCATIONAL WORKSHOPS
EXHIBIT: POTENTIAL WORKSHOP AGENDA
WORKSHOP AGENDA
I. INTRODUCTION BY PARTICIPANTS
II. REVIEW AGENDA AND EXPECTATIONS OF THE WORKSHOP
III. PROGRAM OVERVIEW
- Program description
- Implementation process and responsibilities
- Program schedule
IV. INFORMATION SHARING
- Each Individual has an opportunity to Identify Issues and
opportunities
- Identification of coordination/collaboration
opportunities
- Identification of needs
- Identification of other potential partners
V. ACTION PLANNING
- Identify specific actions to be taken
- Assign responsibility for each action
- Create appropriate structures (committees, task force,
etc.)
- Establish partnering agreements
VI. NEXT STEPS
- Establish tracking, correspondence, meeting process
VII. CLOSE
- Summarize actions
- Map of project
- Workshop agenda
- Contact person, telephone number and address
- List of attendees
Create an environment that facilitates a structured exchange
of information. The setting and tone of the workshop should be
relaxed and encourage interaction among attendees.
Follow-Up
Minutes and ongoing update information should be sent to all
participants.
The input generated from these workshops will help you develop
future action plans, Particularly public involvement activities.
2-21
PLANNING 2
B. CONSTITUENCY BUILDING
4. INTERAGENCY COORDINATION
Success In maximizing marketing efforts must rely on gaining
the support of natural allies. Interagency coordination is one of
the most important elements of any marketing plan.
Moving individuals out of SOV's is a significant behavior
change. Significant for the individual, for business and for
government. It is a long term effort involving interjurisdictional
coordination and involvement from a variety of public and private
organizations.
Many states have regulations which have forced the issue of
interjurisdictional coordination. Mandates for commute trip
reductions have spurred the private sector into taking an active
interest in the development of facilities which will encourage
their employees to rideshare or use transit. For states or regions
with growth management mandates, concurrence -- the recognition
that an action by one organization will likely have a "shock
effect" on the jurisdictions of others -- has brought many
organizations to the same table to wrestle with issues which effect
them all.
Examples of Interagency Impacts
A DOT decision to implement an HOV facility along a corridor
will have a pronounced impact on law enforcement. State police or
state highway patrol representatives should not only be involved in
planning the HOV facility, they can also help to market ft. In
some states an HOV violator may not only get a ticket from a
watchful trooper, but also receive a tidematch application so the
violator can meet a carpool partners and use the lane legitimately
in the future.
Will the HOV facility cause some carpoolers to divert from
their existing corridors to the new HOV corridor? Or cause non-
carpoolers to change their routes? This revised travel behavior
will have an impact on the local jurisdictions, commuters will be
traveling through. Staff members from the public works, traffic
and planning departments need to be part, of the HOV facility
planning, design and implementation process. These staff members
can also serve as a resource to gain access to jurisdiction mailing
lists, promotion channels and education mechanisms.
Public transportation providers are also important to consider
when planning, designing, implementing and promoting HOV
facilities. Good analysis needs to be undertaken in the planning
stages to understand who the market is for the HOV facility. What
portion, if any, of the new HOV users will be switching away from
riding the bus or train? Conversely, how can the transit agency use
the HOV facility to entice more people aboard their buses and
trains? How will the HOV facility be integrated into the ongoing
public transportation marketing strategy?
Problems with Lack of Coordination
Examples from past HOV projects contain several instances in
which a lack of interagency coordination and a failure to build
constituencies with natural allies has created enormous problems
with HOV implementation. In the case of the Santa Monica Diamond
Lanes (see Case Study A-4), the degree of involvement and
commitment to the HOV project varied greatly among the many
agencies affected by transportation decisions. When the media
spotlight turned on the project, the public"saw "...not a united
front but a number of public agencies and elected officials
pointing accusing fingers at the lead agencies, while other
officials remained prudently silent." (Billheimer, et al., 1977).
Several public agencies responsible for transportation activities
adopted an adversary role which hindered both the free flow of
project information and the coordination of project decisions.
In the case of another controversial HOV project, on the
Dulles Toll Road (see Case Study A-6), supervisors from the two
affected counties passed resolutions against the lanes at the time
they were
2-22
scheduled to open. One board went so far as to forbid the county
ridesharing office to mail out brochures advertising the HOV lanes.
The Minnesota Example
The Corridor Management Team assembled by Minnesota DOT
(MN/DOT) in support of the HOV lanes on I-394 has often been cited
as a model of interagency coordination. A block diagram showing
the relationship of the Corridor Management Team to the
participating agencies appears in the accompanying exhibit. This
organizational structure provided top-down open support from within
MN/DOT and promoted strong interagency cooperation with the
project. The Phase I Case Study (October 1987) notes that "...the
public commitment of the Commissioner and the major decision-making
role of the Corridor Management Team were very important in
achieving this support" and cites the importance of designating a
single Corridor Manager with overall responsibility as a key factor
in the project's success. Because responsibility was concentrated
at within a single, identified individual, MN/DOT was able to
respond immediately to any problems or criticisms.
These examples, and examples throughout this manual show how
aggressively solicitation of "partnership" relationships can
leverage your limited resources and significantly increase your
marketing effectiveness. Take a look at the listing of potential
partners in the POTENTIAL PARTNERS section in Chapter 1. Think
about which of these agencies you'll need to bring into the loop to
avoid operational conflicts and to assist in the marketing and
promotion efforts.
2-23
PLANNING 2
B. CONSTITUENCY BUILDING
5. POLITICAL LIAISON
A loss of political support can be fatal to HOV lanes.
It's best to have allied politicians announce their support
for your HOV project in advance of opening day. That's no
guarantee that they won't succumb to pressure from their drive-
alone constituents and attack your project after it's opened, but
it makes it harder for them to do so.
Dave Roper
As representatives of the drivers affected by HOV lanes,
elected officials will be on the front line when it comes to phone
calls from frustrated SOV drivers who are either dissatisfied
because they can't use the lane, or angry because they were cited
for using the HOV facility illegally. How elected officials
respond to these calls will depend in large part to how well
prepared they are. A planned and ongoing cultivation strategy will
enable them to understand the benefits and implications of HOV
lanes and help to ensure their support when discussing HOV
facilities with their constituents.
Elected officials rely heavily on the recommendations and
information provided by their staff. In some cases it can be
equally or more effective to talk with the staff person than with
the elected official. R you have difficulty getting together with
an elected official, request the name of the staff person they
would like to represent them on this issue. Even if the elected
official is available to you, it doesn't hurt to ask if there is
anyone else in their office that should receive copies of
materials.
Communication Tools
The following tools can ensure that information is being
passed to this group while helping identify individuals most likely
to be advocates or advisories.
- General (group) legislative briefing held at noon or early
evening
- Individual briefings
- Written material (periodic or one time)
- Legislative staff meetings
- Committee/sub committee briefings
- Creation of an advisory committee of elected official staffers
As with any other part of your HOV development plan, you
should give equal weight to assigning liaison responsibilities and
objectives to staff members. You may also want to consider
contracting a bill tracking service to identify and track
legislation that applies to all areas of HOVs.
If you work for, or represent a public agency, chances are you
are prohibited from lobbying. You can and should however, provide
education. In addition several of the potential partners
identified in Chapter One of this manual can and will be motivated
to directly influence legislative decisions.
The Cost of Political Opposition
Failure to build support for HOV lanes among political leaders
can have disastrous results. SOV drivers far outnumber HOV users
in most jurisdictions, so if elected officials are not primed on
the-benefits of HOV lanes, a simple head count tends to pull them
into the opposition camp. In the case of the Dulles
2-24
PLANNING 2
B. CONSTITUENCY BUILDING
5. POLITICAL LIAISON
EXHIBIT: LEESBURG TODAY ACCOUNT OF POLITICAL BATTLE OVER DULLES
TOLL ROAD
HOV Died Hard After Bitter Fight
1992 saw the Virginia Department of Transportation dealt in a
stinging defeat in its plan to place 3-person HOV carpool
restrictions on the Dulles Toll Road this summer, after US Rep.
Frank R. Wolf (R-VA-10) ignited commuter ire and later used
Congress to thwart the measure.
VDOT had long-standing plans to restrict two newly-constructed
lanes on each side of the six-lane toll road to HOV3 traffic during
the morning and evening rush hours as part of a $37 million project
funded by the state. The state agency's plan for a September
implementation was upstaged, however, by an early August salvo from
Wolf, who requested the restrictions be delayed, claiming that the
HOV lanes were not needed, would increase traffic congestion and
were opposed by commuters.
Wolf's move was immediately denounced by HOV supporters, who
said federal regulations require the state to begin reducing
vehicle emissions in Northern Virginia. They also charged that
Wolf was taking a convenient, last minute stand on a populist issue
to help his chances for reason in November.
The lines were quickly drawn along partisan lines, as state
Democrats-incensed by the GOP congressman's intrusion into a
Virginia road issue-rushed to VDOT's defense, while Republicans
rallied for Wolf's position, smelling a potential embarrassment of
the administration of Gov. L. Douglas Wilder not far off.
The political battle spilled over onto the local field, where
the GOP-dominated Loudoun Board of Supervisors launched an attack
on Democratic state Sen. Charles L. Waddell, an HOV supporter.
Meanwhile, various citizens groups formed in angry opposition to
the HOV rules.
By the time the restrictions started on the toll road on Sept.
1, public attention on the issue was spirited, and an awful day of
accidents and delays in the two regular traffic lanes made almost a
farce of VDOT's plan. Several weeks of arguing ensued over the HOV
results, with VDOT claiming the number of carpoolers was steadily
increasing while Wolf was calling the traffic delays "a commuter's
worst nightmare come true."
After it became apparent that the state would not lift the
restrictions until VDOT could conduct further studies, Wolf slipped
an amendment into a federal transportation appropriations bill in
late September banning HOV lanes on toll roads on federal land-a
proviso that applies only to the Dulles road. When the measure
passed, Wilder unilaterally lifted the HOV restrictions to preempt
the measure, but not before criticizing Wolf for trespassing on a
state matter. The ban stands until July 1993, when a review of
options to relieve Dulles corridor traffic is due, including using
the Dulles Access Road for HOV lanes, creating reversible rush hour
lanes and using the toll road shoulders for traffic.
The year wound up with VDOT licking its wounds, and causing a
bit of controversy when it authorized $6,000 worth of Burma-Shade
style made signs on the toll road warning of future air quality
troubles as a result of the HOV defeat. Those signs were eventually
replaced by a new set of signs urging commuters to contact a new
toll road solution-finding committee of citizens and legislators
with their suggestions for congestion relief.
Toll Road (see Case Study A-6), the U.S. congressman representing
Northern Virginia spearheaded the opposition to the HOV lanes,
wrote several letters to Virginia's governor asking that HOV
restrictions be delayed, and ultimately engineered the demise of
the lanes by attaching an amendment to, a federal transportation
appropriations bill banning HOV lanes on toll roads on federal
lands--a proviso that applied only to the Dulles Toll Road. After
HOV restrictions had been lifted on the Toll Road, the Washington
Post took VDOT to task for failing to "...develop an early and
comprehensive HOV strategy to educate the general public or local
and state political leaders," noting that when the U.S.
representative from Northern Virginia "...made his first non-public
rumblings against HOV to the highway department, no official
bothered to hold his hand in an attempt to ease his constituent-
instigated apprehensions."
Political opposition in the form of a General Assembly bill
brought about the lifting of HOV restrictions on the first segment
of the Route 44 carpool lanes in Hampton Roads, Virginia. In the
case of the Santa Monica Diamond Lanes, a politician who had
pressured CALTRANS behind the scenes to open the lanes was one of
the first to call openly for their removal when controversy
developed. Recognizing the critical importance of political
support to the success of HOV lanes, the Transportation Research
Board (TRB) offered the following guideline for HOV development:
"Do not open HOV facilities during election campaigns unless
there is firm support from elected officials. Otherwise, political
dissent is nearly assured."
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PLANNING 2
B. CONSTITUENCY BUILDING
6. ENFORCEMENT LIAISON
Without enforcement, an HOV lane soon becomes an SOV lane.
Just as the general public needs to understand the rule s and
benefits of new HOV lanes, they also need to understand what will
happen if they do not comply with the requirements of the new lanes
and believe that the risk of apprehension is high and that
penalties will be enforced if they are caught.
Enforcement Issues
Cooperation between enforcement and operating agencies is
necessary both for smooth operations and for effective enforcement
of HOV facilities. For this reason, enforcement representatives
should be involved in planning at the earliest opportunity. Some
of the issues to be addressed include:
- Enforcement areas where officers can safely observe lane
operations and initiate pursuit;
- Refuge areas for patrol officers to pull over violators;
- Turn-around facilities;
- Personnel requirements;
- Regular monitoring of violation rates;
- Identification of tolerable violation rates;
- Issuing ridesharing information with tickets and warnings;
- Incident management procedures; and
- Start-up strategies.
Types of Enforcement
Four primary enforcement strategies are in use on HOV
facilities (Miller, et al., 1978):
1. Routine enforcement, or those enforcement activities
randomly conducted in concert with the normal assortment
of duties undertaken by a uniformed police officer;
2. Special enforcement, which entails the specific planning,
scheduling and application of police activities on an HOV
facility for a period of time, as when a patrol car is
specifically assigned to a particular HOV lane or bypass
ramp;
3. Selective enforcement, which represents a combination of
both routine and special enforcement. This is the most
common means of enforcing HOV lanes, and guidelines have
been developed which relate the level and duration of
special enforcement activities to violation rates
(Billheimer, et al., 1981; and Billheimer, 1990). The
accompanying exhibit shows an example of the guidelines.
4. Self-enforcement, in which motorists, and HOV users help
to police the lanes by taking voluntary actions to report
violators. While self-enforcement may be applied in
conjunction with any of the first three strategies, Fuhs
(1990) notes that "...it is not considered a standalone
alternative."
2-26
Public Information Support
Research has repeatedly shown that public information programs
which notify the public of enforcement efforts increase the
effectiveness of the enforcement activities and can reduce the
officer presence required to achieve compliance goals. When HOV
lanes are introduced, public information programs should stipulate
usage requirements and make it clear that restrictions will be
actually enforced and upheld by the courts. The levels of fines
and other penalties (i.e. points on driving records) should be
widely publicized.
Statistics on violation rates should be presented to the
public as soon as they are available, along with other data on
project use. Research (Billheimer, 1990) shows that drivers tend
to over-estimate violation rates and are likely to become critical
if actual violation rates rise above 10 percent. Roughly 90
percent of the drivers surveyed in a recent California study
(Billheimer, 1990) felt that the illegal use of carpool lanes was a
problem. (One-third of the drivers felt it was a serious problem,
while an additional 54% rated the problem as minor.)
While public education in conjunction with Visible enforcement
can help to lower lane violation rates, there is no evidence that
public information alone, in the absence of enforcement, can affect
violations. Visible enforcement is needed to maintain the
integrity of an HOV facility and is a key component of a successful
project. Research has shown that drivers are most aware of
enforcement on HOV lanes with facilities for visible enforcement
such as ample median lanes or enforcement areas adjacent to the HOV
lanes.
2-27
PLANNING 2
B. CONSTITUENCY BUILDING
7. JUDICIAL LIAISON
Judicial support for enforcement and penalties is necessary to
maintain HOV lane Integrity.
Fuhs (1990) offers the following guideline penalties for HOV lane
violations:
- Penalties should be significant enough to deter violators.
Fines and demerits on a motorist's record should be
considered.
- Widespread agency/political support should be solicited for
adequate HOV penalties and for upholding penalties through the
local traffic court system.
Fuhs also notes that "it is desirable that laws, at either the
state or local level, specifically address occupancy infractions on
HOV facilities. A basis for a specific statute can be "failure to
obey posted preferential traffic lane restrictions."
Fines should be high enough to discourage willful violators
and graduated to deter repeat violators. Penalties on HOV projects
in l989 varied from $40 to over $246 for the first offense.
CARPOOL
VIOLATION
$246
MINIMUM FINE
In California, fines progress from around $250 for the first
offense to over $600 plus court costs for the third offense.
No matter how high the posted fines are, they are useless
unless the judicial system upholds them. Because enforcement
without penalties can destroy the integrity of your HOV
program,,you must include judges and magistrates in your
constituency building activities.
Find out who hears traffic infraction cases on your freeways
(judges, magistrates, etc.), and be sure those people know the
important role they play in ensuring the viability of the
facilities.
As individuals, judges may not agree with the concept of
penalties for HOV infractions and given their heavy work loads, may
be inclined to give low priority to these infractions.
To ensure that violators will be fully penalized under the
law, it is important to provide information to those charged with
levying infraction penalties.
As with legislators, the following tools can ensure that
information is being passed while helping identify individuals most
likely to be advocates or advisories:
- General (group) briefings
- Individual briefings
- Written material (periodic or one time)
- Creation of an advisory committee
- Evaluate records of penalties given for each judge.
2-28
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PLANNING
B. CONSTITUENCY BUILDING
8. IDENTIFYING MEDIA PARTNERS
Talking to the people who talk to the public Is one of the
most Important aspects of, constituency building.
For 150 years the telegram represented the most immediate
medium to deliver urgent messages. That service is now out of
business. Technology and communications mediums are changing at a
dizzying pace. In 1980 the number of televisions with remote
controls was insignificant, there were no compact disks, very few
video cassette recorders, and no video rental stores. Only
restaurants used microwave ovens. Facsimile machines cost
thousands of dollars, were only owned by large companies and took
five minutes per page. There were no personal computers.
Each of the constituents in this section are important, but
none can impact as many people in as short a time as the media. As
with any other communications process the most effective way to
influence another individual is friend-to-friend talking face-to-
face. The next is friend-to-friend talking oh the phone, then
through letters etc. That is the reason we see advertisers using
so many celebrity spokespersons, and it is also the reason that
news media are so important. It is also the way to cultivate the
media.
Most television commercials are either thirty or sixty seconds
long. As a viewer you know that during that time someone is going
to try to sell you something. So, you might take that opportunity
to go to the kitchen or just "zap" to another station. However,
the average television news story is one-and-one-half minutes long,
delivered by someone we trust and is delivered in an environment we
rely on for factual information.
Always remember that there is no such thing as the "general
public." Media, like their readers viewers and listeners reflect
tremendous diversity. Just as you need to prioritize your
audience, you need to prioritize the media.
HOV education and arguments to change commuter behavior are
best presented during those times that an individual is driving.
Using media that can deliver the HOV message and provide the
individual the opportunity to make a behavior change while they are
in their vehicle will yield the best results. Therefore radio
provides a great opportunity to communicate with SOV drivers.
A list of media positions that should be cultivated and
subjects to consider discussing with each appears in the
accompanying exhibit.
2-30
PLANNING 2
B: CONSTITUENCY BUILDING
8. IDENTIFYING MEDIA PARTNERS
EXHIBIT: POTENTIAL MEDIA PARTNERS AND RELEVANCE TO HOV PROJECTS
POSITION RELEVANCE TO HOV
TRAFFIC REPORTERS Traffic reporters are the best
marketers of HOV lanes on TV and
radio. They can illustrate HOV lane
benefits before and during the
commute.
HEALTH REPORTERS Air quality has a significant impact
on health. Health is one of the
strongest motivators for behavior
change.
BUSINESS REPORTERS The work place is changing. Business
are not only complying with trip
reduction laws but also managing a
changing work environment.
CONSUMER REPORTERS The financial, emotional and health
benefits of using HOV.
GOVERNMENT REPORTERS What is government doing to preserve
quality of life.
EDITORIAL BOARDS HOV plans, timetables, primary
reasons and significant benefits.
NEWS DIRECTOR HOV plans, timetables, primary
reasons and significant benefits.
TRANSPORTATION REPORTERS HOV plans, timetables, primary
reasons and significant benefits.
INTERESTED REPORTERS Many reporters have personal interest
in stories and follow them. Keep
track of your coverage and customize
your approach for each person.
LIFESTYLE EDITORS Changes in the way we arrange our
lives and think about our vehicle.
Increased acceptance of individual
responsibility for their
environmental impacts.
REAL ESTATE EDITORS Impact of HOV access on a resident
and business zones.
2-31
PLANNING
B. CONSTITUENCY BUILDING
9. KEEPING THE MEDIA's ATTENTION
It's Important to establish a personal relationship with media
representatives.
As with all other constituents, you want to establish a
personal relationship with media representatives. Try to meet
face-to-face whenever possible. Explain that you are not pitching
a story but want to provide information about current and planned
HOV programs and discuss how, in what form and when, you can best
provide relevant information to them.
Steps for Cultivating Media Representatives
Typical steps for cultivating media representatives are listed
below:
- Place Introductory call and request meeting;
- Mail letter thanking for phone time and confirming meeting;
- Attend face-to-face meeting;
- Send thank you note confirming agreements;
- Send first press release;
- Make follow-up call to explain specific significance of
release to individual media reps;
- Send thank you note for any coverage.
Topics of Interest to the Media
As we discussed, consumers are more interested in the benefits
of a product than in the features. The media will ask questions to
reveal benefits to their audience and to them: Is this important to
most of my audience? Will this information bring in additional
audience? Is this important to my audience in all geographic
locations?
News is also a victim of trends and it is currently the trend
to pursue stories on government waste aggressively. The Seattle
Times in Seattle, Washington began running frequent ads in late
1993 asking readers to "Blow the whistle" on government. That the
media is watching government and reporting waste is a good thing.
But, be prepared to answer questions related to the cost of any HOV
program, and be prepared to provide meaningful "user-friendly"
comparisons of costs and related benefits. Without such guidance,
the media may draw their own conclusions based on comparisons which
may or may not be valid.
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PLANNING 2
B. CONSTITUENCY BUILDING
9. KEEPING THE MEDIA's ATTENTION
EXHIBIT: TIPS FOR CULTIVATING THE MEDIA
TIP DESCRIPTION
CLIPPING SERVICE Many clipping services are available
to read publications and clip
articles. Use them to keep track of
who is reporting about you and what
ate they saying.
MEDIA LIST/TRACKING Develop a media list of those
Individuals you want to keep
Informed. Track your contact with
them-and their coverage.
GRAPHIC STANDARDS Standardize media documents so
recipients Immediately recognize that
they come from you.
PROCEDURAL STANDARDS If the media calls, who should they
talk to? Who is the "official
spokesperson?" Return all media calls
within 20 minutes, etc.
SPOKESPERSON TRAINING What our positions are, how to dress,
how to look, how to correct bad
Information etc.
THANK YOU NOTES The simplest and cheapest way to
demonstrate sincerity. Send a copy
to their supervisor.
Help them perform their job more
easily. Create a file video
RESOURCE MATERIALS for television stations of
construction use etc. of HOV areas.
Create an annual HOV-FACTS document
of statistics, projections, Impacts,
and Information.
CRISIS RESPONSE TEAM When things don't go as planned you
need to Identify a team of people to
share Information as quickly and
accurately as possible.
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PLANNING 2
B. CONSTITUENCY BUILDING
10. ENVIRONMENTAL GROUP RELATIONS
Bumper-to-bumper traffic wastes an estimated 3 billion gallons
of gasoline a year - 5% of the nation's annual gas consumption.
The goals are the same for everyone: Move more people and
goods in the safest, most cost effective, environmentally friendly
process possible. Because HOV facilities can help communities
realize that goal, environmental groups can be powerful allies.
Environmental groups will have very specific interest in the
impacts of HOV projects. This interest is likely to fall within
two basic areas.
1. Interest in impacts of HOV construction (on land use,
wetlands, etc.)
2 Interest in the impacts of HOV use (on air pollution,
fuel consumption, etc.)
It is important to remember that environmental groups with
similar interests may have entirely different views of an HOV
project. For example, it is not unusual for one group interested
in air quality to support HOV lane construction because of the
incentives it provides for carpooling and transit use. On the
other hand, another air quality group might not support the
construction of HOV lanes because they increase highway capacity.
As with the other segments of your audience you will want to
use the same constituency building process with environmental
groups:
1. Identify Potential Audiences
2. Gather/Analyze Information
3. Prioritize Audiences
4. Identify and Develop Materials
5. Distribute Materials
Ask yourself:
1. Who is my audience?
2. What do I want from them?
3. What do they currently know and feel?
4. When and where is best to reach them?
5. What communication tool will be most effective?
The accompanying exhibit suggests several constituency
building activities for environmental groups. The introduction to
this subsection (Section B-1) contains additional recommendations.
During this process you should investigate opportunities for
collaborative efforts. Once it is determined that opportunities
exist, make a formal request for involvement. Some organizations
using partnership activities are formalizing relationships with
written Partnering Agreements.
2-34
Materials that are produced for use to cultivate constituents
can be used by these groups to distribute their constituents.
Materials that would lend themselves to "second generation"
distribution include:
- Posters, signs - Newsletters - Tabloids
- Displays - Hotline number - Briefing packages
- Brochures and fact sheets - Kids projects - Video, slide shows
2-35
PLANNING 2
B. CONSTITUENCY BUILDING
11. COMMUNITY RELATIONS
A review of results from your market research and focused
Interviews will help Identify Issues and opportunities that may be
unique for each community.
Throughout this section we recommend specific strategies for
each of the groups we have encouraged you to target. The
strategies recommended are not for exclusive use with any single
segment, but intended for consideration in developing your
customized constituency building plan.
In addition to considering the groups and individuals with
apparent interest in your project, you must also think of the
broader characteristics of the community. Many groups and
individuals will emerge and should be included in your constituency
building, but you must also be proactive and reach out to include
groups that may not be as vocal, such as ethnic minorities, people
with disabilities, low-income and elderly citizens, grade and high-
schoolers, military personnel, industrial workers, and tribal
members.
The following strategies can be effective in securing constituents
in individual communities.
ACTIVITIES
Activities validate the importance of Invited Individuals and help
them visualize potential impacts.
BUS TOUR Invited guests take a bus ride to gain
further understanding of project
objectives, routes, processes, etc.
THANK-YOU RIDE Once the facility is open give a VIP bus
tour
MATERIALS
Materials can provide accurate and timely Information In detailed
or broad strokes.
NEWSLETTER Specific Information customized for that
community
MEDIA RELEASES/ Printed and verbal briefings and releases
BRIEFINGS for editors and reporters keep them and
their audiences Informed
DISPLAYS/SPECIAL EVENTS Transportation fairs, employment sites can
use un-staffed displays to disseminate
Information and self-administered
questionnaires
BROCHURES/BRIEFING Basic Information for wide distribution
PACKAGES/FACT SHEETS and specific/customized information for
each community
PAID ADVERTISEMENTS Invite community participation In public
review stages and opening events
SIGNAGE Signs along the corridor can alert
residents to significant events and
solicit their involvement
2-36
PLANNING 2
B. CONSTITUENCY BUILDING
11. COMMUNITY RELATIONS
EXHIBIT: ACTIVITIES, MATERIALS, MEETINGS, AND
FEEDBACK CHANNELS FOR BUILDING
COMMUNITY RELATIONS
MEETINGS/WORKSHOPS
Although expensive, face-to-face communication strategies are
usually the most effective and cost-efficient.
JURISDICTIONAL BRIEFINGS Briefings for elected officials,
staff and public organizations
SPEAKERS BUREAU Allows targeted outreach to groups
and provide feedback channels
PUBLIC MEETINGS/OPEN Allows Individuals to share specific
HOUSES interests without Impairing
participation/information needs of
others
NEIGHBORHOOD MEETINGS Opportunity for close Interaction
between citizens and project
officials
LEADERSHIP WORKSHOPS Provide a structured process for
briefing and soliciting
participation of elected/community
leaders
EMPLOYMENT SITE HOV facilities can have significant
MEETINGS Impact on employees of large
organizations
ISSUE-SPECIFIC MEETINGS Provide forum to discuss issues of a
particular concern
PERSONAL CONTACT WITH Door-to-door visits with corridor
LANDOWNERS residents can significantly impact
how they feel about the project
FEEDBACK CHANNELS
The door should always be open for feedback. The following two
strategies are easy and effective ways for Individuals to reach you
outside of the formal meeting environment.
HOTLINE A phone line dedicated for use by
citizens to provide feedback and
access Information
MEETING QUESTIONNAIRES Simple way to collect quantifiable
results from those attending and
allows less vocal participants to
express their interest
2-37
PLANNING 2
C. CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
1. OVERVIEW
This section deals with three key marketing activities:
(1) Setting campaign objectives;
(2) Developing strategies to meet these objectives; and
(3) Getting professional help.
Setting Campaign Objectives
The first step in undertaking an HOV marketing campaign is the
setting of well-defined objectives. Objectives may be broad
("Increase regionwide acceptance of ridesharing") or narrow ("Cause
carpooling on I-394 to increase by fifteen percent"). However,
they should be defined explicitly, since the development of
campaign strategies, from the definition of target audiences to the
selection of media channels, will be tied to these objectives.
Developing Campaign Strategies
The discussion of campaign strategy in this section addresses
the following issues:
ldentifying Key Issues. Key issues surrounding HOV lanes
typically involve such topics as congestion, mobility, safety,
equity, and ecology. It is important to identify those issues
and develop positioning statements capable of focusing
marketing activities and developing realistic project
expectations.
Defining Target Audiences. It is essential that the primary
and secondary audiences for the marketing campaign be well
defined and carefully targeted. Key incentives will vary by
audience segment.
Budgeting. The campaign strategy and media mix for a public
marketing program will be directly related to the amount of
available funds. Marketing directors must find sufficient
funding and allocate them among different communication
channels to reflect campaign priorities.
Scheduling. Marketing activities should start early in the
project planning stages, peak at the time a project opens, and
continue throughout the life of the project.
Getting Professional Help. While public agencies can take the
lead in carrying out HOV marketing campaigns, most lack the
in-house capability to develop marketing materials. The
assistance of professional advertising agencies should be
sought in developing campaign concepts, producing campaign
materials, and coordinating media distribution.
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2-39
PLANNING 2
C. CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
2. SETTING CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES
Marketing objectives should be defined explicitly, since the
development of campaign strategies will be tied to these
objectives.
Marketing objectives may focus broadly on building regionwide
acceptance of ridesharing and more narrowly on convincing the non-
carpoolers in a specific corridor to shift to carpooling. Whether
broad or narrow, marketing objectives should be defined explicitly,
since the development of campaign strategies will be tied to these
objectives.
The accompanying exhibit lists a number of possible campaign
objectives culled from a variety of sources. These objectives are
discussed in more detail below.
Heighten public awareness of ridesharing as an option. One
broad objective of a marketing campaign can be to heighten
public awareness of ridesharing by publicizing the benefits of
ridesharing throughout the community and emphasizing that the
mission of the transportation system is to move people, and
not just vehicles.
Increase public confidence In HOV strategies. In some
locales, whether because of past HOV failures or general lack
of familiarity with the HOV concept, it may be necessary to
build public confidence in HOV strategies. Public confidence
can sometimes be established by fostering an opening planning
process and advertising the success of HOV lanes in different
areas.
Develop accurate expectations for HOV facilities. Unrealistic
public expectations can damage the credibility and morale of
sponsoring organizations, erode public confidence, and create
opposition to the HOV concept. Stamm (1991) points out that it
is not uncommon for an HOV facility that is technically
successful to be "...viewed as a failure by your constituent
groups because "they don't look full"or because"congestion is
just as bad as before you opened the lane." One objective for
an HOV marketing team is to shape accurate expectations of
what an HOV facility can and cannot accomplish.
Prepare people for-the coming an HOV facility. One common
purpose, of HOV marketing activities is to publicize the
coming of an HOV facility by keeping the public informed of
construction activities, advertising usage requirements,
creating an awareness of HOV lane signage, and "counting down"
the number of days before a project opens.
Promote Immediate use of HOV facilities: The most common
objective of HOV marketers is to sell a specific project to
potential HOV users in an attempt to get them to take up
ridesharing.
Open channels for two-way communication: One objective sited
by the advertising firm marketing I-394 in Minneapolis was "to
provide a means of two-way communication with the affected
communities and any other interested individuals which will
help alleviate ill will during construction, provide a means
of feedback, provide a vehicle to help measure marketing
program results and to build a database for direct mail."
(Minnesota DOT, 1993)
2-40
PLANNING 2
C. CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
2. SETTING CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES
EXHIBIT: TYPICAL CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES
- HEIGHTEN PUBLIC AWARENESS OF RIDESHARING AS AN OPTION;
- INCREASE PUBLIC CONFIDENCE IN HOV STRATEGIES;
- DEVELOP ACCURATE EXPECTATIONS FOR HOV FACILITIES;
- PREPARE PEOPLE FOR THE COMING OF THE HOV FACILITY;
- PROMOTE IMMEDIATE USE OF HOV FACILITIES;
- OPEN CHANNELS FOR TWO-WAY COMMUNICATIONS;
- CONVINCE DRIVE-ALONE COMMUTERS TO RIDESHARE ONCE A WEEK;
- CREATE AWARENESS OF SUPPORT FACILITIES;
- PROVIDE UPDATED ACCOUNTS OF HOV LANE TIME SAVINGS AND USAGE.
Sources: Stamm, 1991; Young and Baird, 1994; and Bloch, et al.,
1994
Convince drive-alone commuters to rideshare once a week. An
example of a more limited objective, the "Team Rideshare"
campaign undertaken by CALTRANS in 1993 emphasized a one-day-
a-week switch to ridesharing in an effort to inspire drive-
alone commuters to sample ridesharing and to overcome the
perception that ridesharing necessitated a full-time
commitment. (Young and Baird, 1944)
Create awareness of support facilities. In the past, some HOV
marketing campaigns have aimed to make the public aware of
such support facilities as park and ride lots or rideshare
matching services.
Provide updated accounts of HOV lane time savings and usage.
One stated objective of ongoing marketing campaigns for
existing HOV facilities is to publicize HOV lane time savings
and usage on an updated basis in an effort to induce more non-
carpoolers to try ridesharing.
Any given HOV marketing campaign may have only two or three of
the above objectives. Over a period of years, however, marketing
campaigns dealing with the planning, introduction, and
implementation of a particular HOV facility might have occasion to
address most of these objectives.
2-41
PLANNING 2
C. CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
3. IDENTIFYING KEY ISSUES
Key Issues concerning HOV facilities must be identified and
addressed openly so that positioning statements can be developed
capable of focusing marketing activities and developing realistic
public expectations.
Key issues surrounding HOV lanes involve such topics as
congestion, efficiency, mobility, safety, equity, and ecology. One
reason that HOV lanes can be a tough sell" is that their impacts on
some of these key issues are ambiguous.
Congestion. HOV lanes must exist in an atmosphere of
congestion. If there is no congestion, there will be no time
advantage available to ridesharers. Further, in order for HOV
lanes to be accepted, people must perceive that congestion
exists and is a serious problem.
Efficiency. HOV lanes improve the efficiency of the
transportation system by moving more people in fewer vehicles.
Relative Mobility. HOV lanes improve the mobility of
ridesharers by saving them time and money and providing
reliable, congestion-free service. Generally, however, HOV
lanes are not perceived as a benefit by non-carpoolers.
Additional space made available to non-carpoolers when
carpoolers shift to their own lane is soon filled with latent
demand, so that single occupant vehicles perceive little
change in their own travel time. If the HOV project has been
designed in such away that noncarpoolers lose more time than
carpoolers gain, moreover, public outcry could be sufficient
to sink the project.
Equity: Is it fair to give ridesharers a better, trip? Most
surveys addressing this issue have found that the vast
majority of drivers (carpoolers and non-carpoolers alike) see
HOV lanes as fair and equitable. A small minority feel that
HOV lanes unfairly deny access to taxpaying non-carpoolers.
This minority can be vocal, particularly if the improved HOV
trip is perceived to come at the expense of a worsened SOV
trip.
Safety. Many HOV lane configurations improve road safety.
This is typically true of meter bypasses and barrier-separated
facilities. However, some (but by no means all)
configurations with no separation between mixed flow lanes and
HOV lanes have raised legitimate safety questions.
Ecology. The effects of HOV lanes on air quality are not well
understood. To the extent that they induce more people to
travel in fewer vehicles, they save gasoline and cut
emissions. Additional congestion in mixed flow lanes can,
however, lead to increased emissions.
In addressing these issues, it is helpful to develop
positioning statements capable of focusing marketing activities and
developing realistic project expectations. A list of sample
positioning statements culled from existing projects appears in the
accompanying exhibit. These information capsules address the key
selling points of an HOV system and provide a solid base for
developing campaign materials and discussing an HOV project with
elected officials, the news media, citizens, civic groups, and
other audiences.
It is incumbent upon the HOV marketing team to shape accurate
public expectations of what an HOV facility can and cannot
accomplish. Stamm (1991) points out that:
2-42
PLANNING
C. CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
3. IDENTIFYING KEY ISSUES
EXHIBIT: SAMPLE POSITIONING STATEMENTS
CHANGING TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
- Congestion Is a fact of life In our community.
- Area growth places additional demands In our
transportation network.
- New federal laws restrict adding conventional lanes to
our freeways.
HOV LANES BENEFIT RIDESHARING COMMUTERS
- HOV lanes save time and money for ridesharing commuters.
- HOV lanes reduce stress by providing a reliable,
congestion-free ride.
HOV LANES BENEFIT THE COMMUNITY
- HOV lanes Improve freeway utilization by,moving more
people In fewer vehicles.
- Fewer vehicles can mean less gas consumption and less
pollution.
HOV LANES CAN WORK
- HOV lanes have been successfully Implemented throughout
the U.S.
- HOV lanes provide a mobility option for those.who can
rideshare.
- HOV lanes have user-friendly support systems In the form
of park-and-ride lots, ridematching services, employer
programs.
- HOV lanes are just a part of the solution to
transportation problems.
Sources: Adapted from "Positioning Statements, Hampton Roads HOV
Systems" (VADOT, undated); (Young and Baird, 1994); and
(Bloch, et al., 1994).
"Unrealistic public expectations can be extremely damaging to
the credibility and morale of the organization undertaking the HOV
project. They can also erode public confidence in the
organization's ability to carry out it's mission. On the other
hand, when the public (and the public's designated decision makers,
such as elected officials, local jurisdictions staff, etc.) has
been included in the planning process, expectations are much more
likely to accurately reflect the goals, objectives and expected
benefits and outcomes of the project."
It is particularly important that HOV lanes not be billed as
the solution to an area's transportation problems. Fuhs (1990)
makes this point succinctly in summarizing the key advantages of
HOV systems.
"...HOV facilities have proved cost effective for increasing
mobility in urban freeway corridors. They can accommodate growth
in travel demand, and they can serve the public with increased
efficiency. However, they are not a "cure-all" for urban and
suburban transportation problems. They are only part of the
solution. Their use in corridors where justified can make a
significant improvement for those who choose to take transit or to
rideshare.
2-43
PLANNING 2
C. CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
4. DEFINING TARGET AUDIENCES
The question is not: How do we reach the largest number of people
with the same message?
The question is: How, when, where, and with what message do we
communicate to these non-carpoolers with the best likelihood of
becoming ridesharers?
Simplistically, effective advertising and media communication
involves creating customized messages and directing them
appropriately and efficiently at carefully defined audiences. When
embarking upon any public information campaign, it is crucial that
the "public" be carefully defined. What is the primary audience?
What are the major characteristics of members of that audience? How
old are they? Where do they live? What do they do? In developing an
HOV marketing program, it is crucial to develop as detailed a
profile as possible of the primary and secondary audiences for the
public outreach campaign. Effective HOV marketers should become
sleuths--learning as much as possible about the persons they are
trying to reach with campaign messages.
HOV marketing campaigns can be aimed at a number of target
audiences. Potential target populations include:
. Corridor drivers . Area residents
- Non-carpoolers - Corridor residents
- Carpoolers - Population at large
. Employers . Public agencies
. Corridor businesses . Decision-makers
. Community groups . Media representatives
Part of the HOV marketing process involves defining key
segments of the target audience and identifying their concerns so
that they can be addressed openly and honestly. The market
research procedures discussed in Section 2A can help both in
defining the composition of target groups and identifying their
concerns.
Probably the most important group to be targeted by an HOV
marketing campaign contains those individuals who currently drive
alone in the HOV corridor but who are likely candidates for future
carpools. It is essential to recognize that this group is likely
to represent a relatively small proportion, of current drivers. A
survey conducted in advance of HOV lanes on the Long Island
Expressway (Bloch, et al., 1994) found that only twenty percent of
existing expressway users were willing to consider carpooling as an
option. Market research conducted prior to the opening of I-394 in
Minneapolis determined that only ten percent of existing corridor
users would consider switching to carpooling or busing when the
Express Lanes were complete. (Strgar-Roscoe-Fausch, Inc., 1986).
Females under the age of 35 represented the most likely target for
this mode shift.
Market research can help to identify the population most
likely to shift to carpooling and isolate the messages most likely
to appeal to members of that population. The more information that
marketers can obtain about their primary audience, the easier it is
to target the media to reach that audience. Generally, the two
most important audience characteristics for media purposes are age
and gender. Other characteristics that may be of use in
identifying members of the primary and secondary audience are place
of employment, location of residence, household size, occupation,
automobile access, income, and educational background. Once an
audience profile is complete, material creation, media mix, and
campaign targeting can be accomplished much more efficiently.
2-44
2-45
PLANNING 2
C. CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
5. BUDGETING
The campaign strategy and media mix for an HOV marketing
campaign will be directly related to the amount of available funds.
"Half the money spent on advertising is wasted. The trouble
is, nobody knows which half."
The first questions asked by a commercial advertising agency
when approached about handling a campaign are, "Who are you trying
to reach?" and "How much money do you have?" The size of your
budget determines the type of campaign you will be able to wage,
and consequently guides all planning and implementing activities.
If you're working with a million dollars to reach a target
population, then you can consider substantial television production
and placement activities. It you've got $40,000 for the same
effort, you'd better plan on cultivating a great deal of in-kind
support and cooperative ventures. By using materials from the
public domain and relying exclusively on public service
advertising, his possible to conduct an effective campaign on a
shoestring budget.
Regardless of the size of your available funds, your planning
strategy should make extensive use of free or inexpensive marketing
avenues: public service advertising; radio and television talk and
magazine shows; donated outdoor advertising space; "piggyback"
distribution of print materials; and in kind fundraising
activities.
To carry out the entire realm of activities required for an
effective public outreach campaign, the full arsenal of media
materials should be at your disposal. In a fully-rounded campaign,
these include: television PSAS, radio PSAS, one- and two-color
print ad slicks; premiums; press kits; billboards; basic
information brochures- posters; flyers; newsletters; and speaker's
bureaus. You should be able to prepare and distribute all of these
items for a budget of under $150,000. As the, budget amount
increases, the quality of the products and the sphere of
distribution can naturally increase. As the budget increases
further, paid media placement can be considered.
The accompanying exhibit shows the size of the first year's
marketing budgets for the HOV projects described in the case
studies of Appendix A. These budgets range from negligible to
$400,000. The size of the marketing budget is not necessarily
correlated with the success of the project. One of the -:most
successful projects listed, the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge,
received a negligible amount of marketing, while the failed Santa
Monica Diamond Lanes had a marketing budget of $358,000. As has
been noted, it's easy to sell a good project, but no amount of
marketing can make a flawed HOV concept acceptable to the driving
public.
The exhibit shows a wide variety of funding sources for HOV
marketing activities. The Minnesota Department of Transportation
used federal interstate monies to advertise the coming of the Sane
Lane on I-394. CALTRANS combined an UMTA grant with state and
county funding to publicize the Santa Monica Diamond Lanes.
Seattle relied heavily on WSDOT funding to market the southern
branch of HOV lanes on I-5.
The Washington State DOT (WSDOT) was one of the first State
Transportation Agencies to recognize the importance of marketing
activities in introducing and operating HOV projects. Their
Freeway HOV System Policy states that "Education and marketing
elements shall be included in project development and construction
expense for each major HOV project." (WSDOT, 1992). In recent
years, the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA)
has made federal highway funds available to encourage public
involvement in state and local ridesharing projects.
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PLANNING 2
C. CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
5. BUDGETING
EXHIBIT: FIRST YEAR MARKETING BUDGETS
FOR SAMPLE HOV PROJECTS
FIRST YEAR
HOV PROJECT YEAR MARKETING FUNDING
BUDGET SOURCES
DULLES TOLL ROAD 1992 $12,000 VDOT
HAMPTON ROADS I-44 1986 40,000 VDOT
HAMPTON ROADS 1-64 1992 300,000 FHWA, VDOT,
State Transit
MINNESOTA I-394 1986 400,000 Federal Interstate
Funding (90%);
State (10%)
SAN FRANCISCO/OAKLAND 1971 Negligible CALTRANS
BAY BRIDGE
SANTA MONICA DIAMOND 1976 358,000 UMTA (69%);
LANES State (14%);
County (17%)
SEATTLE I-5 1991 41,530 WSDOT
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PLANNING 2
C. CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
6. HIRING PROFESSIONALS
It Is best to let people who know what they are doing do what
they do best.
"Every American man thinks that he can sing tenor, play
shortstop for the Yankees and write ad copy."
Old Husband's Tale
There is a commonly held myth that hiring professional
consultants is a waste of time and money. "The myth is true only
if you hire the wrong professionals for the wrong tasks. When
marketing an HOV project, it is crucial to bring people on board
who know what they are doing--those who possess -the skills and
resources to develop a successful campaign, promote the product,
and educate the public. Websters Dictionary describes the
adjective "professional" as "showing a sound workman's command." In
each marketing specialty, let the professional workmen carry out
their duties to help you reach your marketing and campaign goals.
Difference between Advertising -and Public Relations Agencies.
Advertising agencies are best equipped to create, produce and place
the various forms of paid media. Public relations firms specialize
in obtaining press coverage and utilizing free media channels to
generate public support for projects and products. The chart on
the opposite page summarizes the specialties of each type of firm.
Many agencies are "hybrid" organizations that can carry out the
majority of advertising and public relations activities in-house
for an HOV project. If the expertise does not exist internally at
an agency, most have a working relationship with associated firms
whose skills are complimentary.
Selecting professional consultants. In selecting the
appropriate agency or agencies, a number of processes can be
utilized. The issuing of a Request for Proposal (RFP) for the
desired services is the most common approach. One alternative is
to issue an initial RFP for a firm or firms to design your
marketing and information plan. You may wish to hire your selected
consultants to carry out the marketing plan they developed, or you
may find R best to issue a new RFP for the implementation of the
plan. In any case, carefully specify the desired task areas of the
project, the desired objectives of the campaign, the range of funds
available, etc. Effective RFP evaluation schemes use a weighted
average to compare submitted budgets --as opposed to a simple low
bid process. Pay attention to the references of proposing firms,
and thoroughly interview the account personnel who would be
assigned to your HOV project to help assure compatibility. When
selecting your media team, don't forget to look at philosophical
credentials and conflicts of interest. A media team that believes
in what you are trying to accomplish will do a better job at
reaching your goals than an unmotivated but qualified one.
Advertising agencies have established relationships with media
outlets and are savvy to placement contracts, schedules, etc. Many
media buys can only be made by an advertising agency--not directly
by the client. Bona fide advertising agencies receive a discount
for placement usually equal to 15% of the published rates. You pay
$1 00 for a spot, and the agency pays $85.00. Some agencies (if the
placement budget is large enough to allow it) pay for the
production of media spots from this discount, but it is more likely
that the production costs will itemized in the agency budget and be
paid directly by the client. In this case, the placement discount
represents the agency's profit.
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PLANNING 2
C. CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
6. HIRING PROFESSIONALS
EXHIBIT: SPECIALTIES OF ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC
RELATIONS FIRMS
SPECIALTIES OF SPECIALTIES OF
ADVERTISING FIRMS PUBLIC RELATIONS FIRMS
Market Research Strategic Marketing Planning
Logo and ID Development
Media Creation Ongoing Media Relations
Graphic Design Copywriting & Editing
Logo and ID Development Press Kits
Posters, Brochures, Collateral Press Releases
Premiums/Special Items Publicity
Television Advertisements Special Event Planning
Radio Advertisements Special Training
Print (Newspaper and Magazine) Ads Media Training
Packaging Speech Writing
Direct Mail Pieces Public Spokespersons
Premiums Newsletter
Response to Public Inquiries
Media Placement Media Coverage Tracking
Television Talk Show Scheduling
Radio
Newspaper
Magazine/Trade
Outdoor
Case Study References. As many sections of this manual
illustrate, the initial design of an HOV project and the careful
planning of the marketing and information campaigns are the most
important determining factors in its marketing effectiveness.
Advertising professionals helped to market Minnesota I-394 and
Seattle I-5, both successful projects. As was shown in the case of
the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge HOV Lanes, however, a good
project can market itself. The two most conspicuous failures in
the case studies of Appendix A are the Santa Monica Diamond Lanes
and the Dulles Toll Road HOV Lanes. Neither of these projects
employed professional advertising agencies. However, it is
unlikely that the best professional advertising firms or public
relations experts could have saved these flawed projects, unless
they were involved enough at the planning stages to have influenced
design decisions.
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PLANNING 2
C. CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
7. SELECTING MEDIA CHANNELS
A good media mix for an HOV project marketing and
Informational campaign utilizes all the various paid and public
service media channels available--with final selections made on the
basis of the costs and benefits of each in relationship to the
available budget.
Major Media Channels. The media channels which can be
utilized by an HOV project for marketing and informational purposes
are similar to those for corporate marketers, with public service
channels thrown into the mix. They include: radio, television,
newspaper and periodical advertising; posters, brochures,
newsletters and direct mail pieces; outdoor advertising, road sign
signs, bus-side and interior transit advertising; premiums;
outreach videos and electronic communications. Those channels
which offer "free" space or time in some measure to public service
projects include radio, television and billboards. The chart on
the opposite page shows some disadvantages and advantages of each
type of media channel for HOV project use. More specific
discussions of each type of media may be, found in Sections 2D and
3B.
Selecting the Media Mix. The selection of a media mix and the
prioritization of certain media channels is dependent upon three
major factors: the size and makeup of the media market; the
available budget; and the nature of the HOV project. The pie-chart
below presents a breakdown of a generic media budget for an HOV
project, Please consider it as just a template for how a budget
could prioritize the media mix of a project.
Experience in Other Projects. A brief summary of media mixes
in some other projects should prove helpful to HOV project
planners. A major rideshare advertising campaign in Los Angeles in
1993 involved more than $4 million of advertising, with television,
radio and outdoor advertising emphasized. In that campaign, 96% of
adults aged 25-54 were exposed to an average of 167 messages each.
A much more modestly budgeted project, the Minnesota I-394 campaign
spent its annual marketing budget of roughly $400,000 to produce a
radio spot, a billboard, newspaper ads, bus-side advertising, a
newsletter, commuter guides and a campaign poster. The Seattle I-5
campaign developed almost an exactly similar media mix, with a
further emphasis on premiums and live PSA scripts for radio and
television stations. Virginia's first-phase Route 44 project
budgeted $40,000 for a brochure, a two-page newspaper ad and an
instructional video. The Second Phase mix added roadside signs,
promotional tie-ins, sponsorships of radio traffic reports, and
extensive public outreach media activities. The comprehensive
media plan for the Long Island Expressway project was divided into
three levels of marketing and informational activities, with the
top level of budgeting including paid radio and television ads and
the printing of newspaper supplements to be included in the papers
of corridor residents.
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PLANNING 2
C. CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
8. SCHEDULING
HOV marketing activities should begin as early as possible In
the project planning stages, peak at the time the project opens,
and continue over the life of the project.
Marketing activities surrounding HOV facilities can be divided
into three separate phases, covering (1) Project planning; (2)
Project opening; and (3) Ongoing project operations.
The accompanying exhibit summarizes the key marketing
objectives formulated by the team responsible for publicizing the
I-394 Express Lane in Minneapolis, along with the campaign
strategies and tactics used to achieve these objectives.
Project Planning. The HOV marketing process should begin as
early as possible in the project planning stages with constituency
building activities and a review of the project's selling points
and shortcomings from a public relations standpoint. Too often in
the past, marketing personnel have been excluded from the inner
circle of project planners until the facility is nearing completion
- and it's time to try to fill the lanes with ridesharers. As a
result, many opportunities for public participation in the planning
process are lost, and these lost opportunities can turn into
marketing problems when the project is implemented. Potential
marketing problems can often be identified and headed off by
including marketing personnel on planning and design teams.
After polling a number of engineers, planners, marketers, and
administrators to find out what they thought about a variety of HOV
marketing issues, Stamm (1991) concluded that
"it appears that those who spend time trying to persuade
commuters to leave their single occupant vehicles behind for
life in the HOV lane (or sane lane, or diamond lane, or
whatever the facility may be) need to consider yet another
market--the engineers, planners and administrators who have
ultimate oversight authority of HOV projects. So that they,
too, will be invited to join the "inner-circle" HOV marketing
professionals need to heighten the awareness and understanding
of the value of marketing as part of the HOV planning
process."
Project Opening: The concentration of marketing activities
around the opening of an HOV project represents the best understood
and usually the best executed portion of the HOV marketing process.
This phase calls for the careful orchestration of materials and
events designed to announce the opening, advertise the benefits of
ridesharing, and entice commuters to try carpooling or-transit
riding. The marshalling of marketing activities about an
identifiable event, the project opening, most closely resembles
traditional advertising promotions and can include such familiar
activities as calendar countdowns, media blitzes, ribbon-cuttings,
press tours and public speeches. A detailed treatment of the
marketing activities surrounding the opening of HOV lanes can be
found in the Seattle I-5 Case Study of Appendix A.
Ongoing Maintenance: HOV marketing should not stop once a
facility has opened. Marketing should be an ongoing part of
project operations, tracking the advantages of lane use,
advertising support services such as park-and-fide lots or
ridematching programs, answering public criticism, and creating
realistic expectations for the role of HOV facilities in the modern
transportation network.
The accompanying exhibit provides an example of the types of
strategies which can be employed to achieve the marketing
objectives identified at each stage of an HOV project. The third
column lists a variety of tactics reflecting these strategies.
Typically, these tactics consist of marketing materials (project
logos, newsletters, print ads, radio ads, press kits, etc.) aimed
at a particular segment of the target audience. The following
section discusses these materials in more detail.
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PLANNING
D. MARKETING MATERIALS
1. OVERVIEW
A wide variety of print and electronics marketing materials
can be employed in HOV campaigns. Whenever possible, all materials
should be unified through a memorable. logo, slogan, or symbol.
This section addresses the variety of materials which can be
employed in HOV marketing campaigns.
Range and Content. The accompanying exhibit displays the range
of potential HOV marketing materials, along with an indication of
the content which can be conveyed most easily through the materials
and the likely target audience. Printed materials include
brochures, newsletters, flyers, newspaper and magazine ads, and
Posters. Electronic media channels include radio and television
spots, while outdoor advertising formats include roadside signs and
billboards. A wide variety of premiums such as key fobs, bumper
strips, post-it notes, balloons, matchbooks, coffee mugs, and jam
jars have also been used to encourage the use of HOV lanes.
Subsequent subsections consider each of these materials in detail,
using examples from existing or past campaigns whenever possible.
Thematic and Graphic-Consistency: Most effective corporate
advertising campaigns use, at a minimum, two primary unifying
elements: (1) a slogan, and (2) the company's graphic logo. Both
of these elements are customarily used in combination on all media
products. This policy is not simply a current fad, it is a tried
and true approach to building and maintaining a strong public
image. The IBM logo, the shell of Shell Oil, "Fly the Friendly
Skies,""This Bud's for You"--most people Will instantly recognize
.these logos or statements and form an immediate association in
their minds. In developing campaign materials, HOV marketers
should strive to create the same consistency of program identity
and graphics.
The key to achieving consistency in developing marketing
materials is to translate program goals into an easily recognizable
theme (both verbal and graphic) which will serve as a cornerstone
for the media efforts. First, the project should be given a
"public" title. This title should be brief and accurate. Research
has shown that few drivers refer to carpool lanes as HOV lanes.
Many members of the public do not even recognize the acronym. The
public is much more likely to understand and identify with more
descriptive titles such as the Sane Lane (the early title for
Minneapolis I-394), Express Lanes (Minneapolis, San Diego and
others, Diamond Lanes (Santa Monica and others), or Transitways
(Houston).
Once a suitable title has been found for the project, a
professional designer should create a logo (title with accompanying
image) or logo type (title in a unique style or rendering). This
logo should be used to unify all campaign materials: letterheads,
press releases, print and billboard art, television PSAS, etc. The
logo should be designed to be appropriate for one- and two-color
renditions, and, in some cases, full-color applications. Not every
HOV project needs a title, symbol, or slogan, but they can be
extremely helpful in conveying key themes to the public. For
example, marketing, materials on the I-394 project were unified
through the use of a single logo showing a construction worker
replacing the old Highway 12 sign with a new I-394 standard (shown
at the right).
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PLANNING
D. MARKETING MATERIALS
2. BROCHURES
Attractive brochures are effective vehicles for explaining
project background, showing lane alignment, answering frequently
asked questions, clarifying lane utilization requirements, and 15 -
providing ridesharing and transit Information.
Brochures describing the project and its use are a staple
marketing tool that can be used to communicate with all segments of
the public, as well as representatives of the political, judicial
and business communities.
Format: The most popular format for HOV marketing brochures
is the gate-fold or accordion-fold brochure which folds down into
3-1/2" by 8-1/2" panels. Brochures most often contain six or eight
panels, but can be larger. Minnesota DOT produced a 24-panel fold-
down Commuters Guide to the I-394 Express Lanes, while the
Washington State DOT produced a 22-page booklet of answers to -
common HOV questions (see Exhibit). While the number of panels is
flexible, the fold-down size fits both a number ten mailing
envelope and common literature holders, so the brochures can easily
be mailed out in response to requests for information and included
in information racks at DMV offices, AAA offices, transit
information stalls, rideshare centers, employer bulletin boards,
and similar distribution points.
Content: Project brochures should contain general
information, attractively presented that is designed for a long
shelf life. Contents of existing brochures include
- Project maps - Park-and Ride Lot locations
- HOV rules - Common questions and answers
- Arguments for ridesharing - Ridematching applications
- Transit information - Information numbers
- Background information
To ensure a long shelf life, time-dated material such as
construction information, project schedule and transit timetables
should generally not be included in the project brochure. This
information is better handled in newsletters and ad-hoc flyers.
Distribution. As the primary campaign information piece, the
marketing brochure should be designed for mass production and
distribution. It will have literally hundreds of uses and can be
handed out at public meetings, included in press kits, mailed to
members of the target audience, forwarded in response to
information requests, inserted in information display racks, and
provided to legislators, business leaders, and members of the
judiciary.
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PLANNING 2
D. MARKETING MATERIALS
3. NEWSLETTERS
Regular newsletters can be used to keep the public Informed
regarding route alignments, construction schedules, legislative
changes, survey results, transit timetables, ongoing system
performance, and other matters of Interest.
A project newsletter is an effective marketing tool for
communicating timely information on a variety of issues. As a
regular (or even irregular) publication, it has more flexibility
than a brochure, and can be used to update the public regarding
changes in project schedules, pertinent legislation, and system
performance.
Content: A project newsletter provides a forum for addressing
a number of issues in a timely fashion. It can educate readers
regarding the planning process, inform them of changes in
construction schedules, announce the opening of park-and-ride lots
and other support facilities, publish transit timetables, and
report the findings of surveys and traffic counts. Newsletters
also provide a mechanism for publicly recognizing project
participation by constituency groups and allied agencies. Finally,
newsletters can be used to correct misapprehensions and ensure that
accurate public expectations are maintained regarding project scope
and performance.
Frequency. A number of State Departments of Transportation
have produced HOV project newsletters. These include Washington,
Tennessee, and Minnesota (see Exhibit). Other State DOTs (i.e.,
CALTRANS) regularly produce newsletters which include HOV news.
Regularly scheduled newsletters tend to be produced on a quarterly
basis. Alternatively, newsletters can be timed to coincide with
project milestones.
Distribution. The project newsletter should receive wide
distribution to corridor residents, key employers, community
groups, media representatives, transit riders, and affected
drivers. In short, nearly everyone on the database mailing list.
Regarding distribution, Stamm (1991) suggests that
"Project teams should look to paltering organizations for
assistance in newsletter distribution. Transit agencies and
local jurisdictions are a good starting point. They can put
newsletters aboard their buses, distribute them to their
employees, and place them in customer waiting areas. Elected
officials may want to insert newsletters in publications they
send to their constituents."
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PLANNING 2
D. MARKETING MATERIALS
4. FLYERS
Single-sheet flyers can be used to define project limits,
provide construction updates, circulate general ridesharing
Information, and announce opening day celebrations and other
special events.
Content. Single-sheet flyers are easy to design and reproduce,
and can be used to supply the public with timely, up-to-the-minute
information on construction progress, special events, temporary
lane closings, and public meetings. They also provide a handy
format for fact sheets covering a variety of topics such as HOV
background, ridesharing benefits, fines for lane violations, and
legislative requirements.
Distribution. Flyers can be backed with mailing information or
mailed in one-sheet "shells" imprinted with the project logo,
information number, and return address. They can also be handed
out at park-and-ride lots, transit stations, ridesharing events,
metered on-ramps, public meetings, office centers, and displayed in
information racks at a variety of locations. They are typically
aimed at specific segments of the commuting population.
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PLANNING 2
D. MARKETING MATERIALS
5. POSTERS AND PRINT ADS
Posters can help keep the project Image before the public and
serve as a continuing reminder of the opportunity for ridesharing.
Posters provide good visibility for public information
campaigns. Once they have gone up, they continue to deliver
lasting impressions to target audiences over time.
Content: To be effective, posters and print ads must be
graphically appealing and draw in the audience for the marketing
message. A good poster or ad should provide a "quick take" of the
primary campaign message--attracting the desired audience,
convincing them to read the message, providing them with a well-
defined action item, motivating them to take the desired action,
and leaving them with a positive feeling about what they've seen.
Sentiment or humor can help to attract an audience, but sentiment
or humor alone won't make a successful poster.
Posters and print ads can carry a number of HOV marketing
messages effectively. Through a quick visual take they can convey
ridesharing advantages, slogans, key phone numbers, and project
identification. All posters and print ads should carry the project
logo linking them with other campaign materials.
Posters should be approximately 18" x 24" in size--large
enough to attract attention and do the job, but not so large as to
discourage posting in locations where wall space or display room is
in demand. It is often desirable to produce posters in two
different sizes with a smaller size for bulletin boards and other
space-limited locations. Even where space is not limited, posters
must be sufficiently attractive to appeal to those responsible for
posting them.
Distribution: Posters and print ads can be targeted at
specific area residents or aimed at a more general audience.
Typical locations for posters might include downtown businesses,
transit stations, park-and-ride lots, shopping malls, high school
driver's ed classes, parking, garages, and such public locales as
DMV offices and community centers.
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.
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PLANNING 2
D. MARKETING MATERIALS
6. NEWSPAPER ADVERTISEMENTS
While project personnel should attempt to create newsworthy events
which will generate newspaper coverage, the purchasing of paid,
newspaper advertising does not usually represent an effective use
of funds in a public Information campaign.
In general, paid newspaper advertising should play a
relatively minor role in -the media mix of an HOV marketing
campaign. This is not to say that newspaper advertising cannot be
used effectively in the right circumstances. Compared to other
media channels available for promoting public service campaigns,
however, newspaper advertising does not rank very high as an
attention-getter or an effective use of resources.
Most newspapers do not provide display space free for public
service campaigns and feel that they best serve the public interest
by covering projects and events of public interest. They can
devote more space and garner more attention in an editorial context
than they might by donating advertising space. One strategy for
involving newspapers in a public information campaign, then, is to
generate newsworthy activities which will attract newspaper
coverage. This is a far more effective, and more convincing,
strategy than purchasing advertising space. Most newspapers will
also gladly include notices of a public outreach campaign's events
or activities in the community billboard or weekly schedule
sections.
One of the negative aspects of paid newspaper advertising is
the "laid-off" from full readership to readership of a particular
advertisement. it may be that 200,000 people, for example, read a
newspaper, of which 120,000 may look at a particular section and
80,000 at a particular page. Half of the 80,000 might spot an HOV
marketing advertisement and 1 0,000 might peruse it. This may be a
harsh example, but it is nevertheless true that placement costs are
relatively high for-an audience which is difficult to target
effectively and is significantly lower than the total newspaper's
readership.
From the standpoint of these guidelines, newspaper advertising
just doesn't seem to offer the right vehicle for a public service
campaign, particularly a narrowly targeted HOV marketing campaign.
Newspaper advertising is extremely useful for retail purposes--
advertising sales and products and services. But a large
proportion of the population does not read newspapers, and it is a
tall task to motivate those that do with the types of messages that
would be created for a public education campaign.
There are a few specific instances in which newspaper
advertising might offer a good use of funds for an HOV marketing
campaign. An exception to the general rule could be made when the
primary purpose of the campaign is to inform the general population
of a single message--such as the availability of a common 800
number for rideshare matching, or the location of public meetings.
These simple and straightforward messages can be effectively
conveyed in a newspaper advertising program. Newspaper advertising
can also be a cost-effective addition to an HOV marketing campaign
if the public agency can find a private partner who is willing to
assume the lion's share of the advertising expense in return for
the name recognition afforded the partners products or services.
The accompanying exhibit provides an example of an HOV message
embedded in an automobile advertisement placed in Houston
newspapers.
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PLANNING 2
D. MARKETING MATERIALS
7. RADIO SPOTS
Promotional material read by traffic reporters as part of
their regular programs not only reaches drivers during their
commute time. but also Improves the reporters' perspective
regarding preferential lanes.
Advantages of Radio: Radio offers several advantages as a
communications medium for an HOV marketing campaign. It is
relatively inexpensive, is easily targeted, versatile, personal,
and reaches a captive audience of drivers at a time when they are
experiencing the congestion HOV lanes are designed to relieve.
Direct production costs for a radio service campaign are
relatively inexpensive. They can range anywhere from a few hundred
to a few thousand dollars, depending on the sophistication of the
concept, announcing fees, and the use of paid talent. The cost
range is one-tenth to one-twentieth the cost of producing a
television message of comparable length.
Demographic profiles for radio station audiences tend to be
more heavily segmented and better defined than those for television
stations. As a result, specific market segments are more easily
targeted through radio messages.
Radio is versatile. One doesn't need to be a fan of old-time
radio to appreciate the ability of the spoken word and sound
effects to produce strong imagery and provoke the listener's
imagination. The radio format allows a tremendous amount of
latitude in the creative process, since radio broadcasts can evoke
images which would be far too expensive to produce on television.
As an example, a sound effect of screeching brakes and an
automobile accident (cost $50) can create the same understanding in
the radio listener that would require tens of thousands of dollars
to create in Video.
Radio broadcasts lend themselves to personalized messages more
effectively than other types of media. If you're driving in your
car and hear a radio message introduced by an on-air personality,
it seems to be more personally directed at you than a similar
message appearing on television or in the newspapers.
A good portion of the radio audience is a captive audience.
Particularly during commute times, your message may well have the
undivided attention of the listener. There is no better time to
advertise the benefits of HOV lanes than the commute period, when
solo drivers are stuck in traffic.
Live Reads by-Traffic Reporters: HOV marketers report that
one of the most effective means of reaching the audience of drive-
alone commuters is through live on-the-air "reads" by traffic
reporters. These messages not only reach drivers during their
commute (and sound like reporting rather than the public service
messages) but also improve the reporters' views of HOV lanes.
Marketers in Minneapolis, Seattle, and Hampton Roads all realized
great success with this approach.
Public Service Announcements: More traditional public service
announcements (PSAS) can also represent an effective means of radio
communication. Creative radio advertising can be produced for
relatively small budgets. Peer-group testimonials, pop music beds,
production music beds, clever dialogue, celebrity narrators,
announcer narratives, and a host of other styles and techniques can
be most effective. In Minneapolis, the "Sane Lane" jingle used to
introduce the HOV lanes on I-394 was so effective that local
residents continued to refer to the Sane Lane long after marketing
efforts had been launched to change the identity of the project to
Express Lane.
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.
It is generally productive to supply radio stations with
different lengths of spots--usually a 60-second, 30-second, 20-
second and 10-second treatment of each PSA. Radio station policy
regarding acceptance of lengths of pre-recorded spots varies
greatly from station to station and from market to market. So it's
best to give station personnel a choice on the same reel or
cassette. Given a choice, 60-second spots are preferred, simply
because the length provides more time to be creative, establish the
premise of the ad, and steal more attention from the audience.
Radio outlets are not obligated to broadcast any public
service messages at this time. On the other hand, most do, and
most like to demonstrate a spirit of community involvement,
especially around the time their own broadcast license is up for
renewal. And many stations are sincerely dedicated to stressing
public service promotions. These responsible stations can be
effectively reached With a good package of ads and accompanying
material. Half the battle in procuring public service air time is
in convincing the public service directors to run your ads. There
is tremendous turnover among public service directors, and many are
beleaguered staffers who pore over the stacks of messages on their
desk in the back of the building. In order to appeal to these
people and get your spots into the rotation, the ads must be
striking and appealing--deemed appropriate to the station's
audience--and be judged as providing a legitimate local public
service. Minneapolis and Seattle are among the municipalities
which have produced creative radio PSAs as part of an HOV marketing
campaign.
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PLANNING 2
D. MARKETING MATERIALS
8. TELEVISION SPOTS
HOV marketing budgets typically cannot support the production
and placement of paid TV advertising, but effective use can be made
of local TV news shows, talk shows, and outreach videos.
In any public information campaign, careful consideration
should be given to the role of television in the media mix. In
major U.S. media markets, the average time a person spends watching
television greatly exceeds the time spent listening to the radio,
reading newspapers, or being exposed to other media channels, and
research suggests that television is the media channel best
remembered as a source of public service messages. Moreover, the
television industry has historically been more supportive of public
service advertising than other media channels.
While television is an economical means of reaching,large
audiences (most paid advertising if effectively researched and
scheduled, can be placed for between $5 and $25 per viewing
households), production costs can be daunting for a small marketing
budget, and it is difficult to target- a- specific audience with
public service TV ads. Even so, there are a variety of ways
television can be useful in an HOV marketing program. In addition
to public service spots, effective use can be made of TV news
shows, talk shows, video news releases, and educational videos.
Public Service Announcements. The cost of producing a 30-
second television spot can range from a few thousand dollars to
over three hundred thousand dollars. While a television spot does
not necessarily have to be expensive to be effective, many of the
elements required to make a television spot effective often require
considerable expense. Most nationally distributed commercial
advertising spots currently cost between $150,000 and $300,000 to
produce, and public service announcements must compete with these
commercial spots for the viewer's attention. Marry sophisticated
public service announcements have been produced for a cost between
$15,000 and $50,000. Since the cost of producing a 30-second TV
spot can consume a significant portion of a local HOV lane
marketing budget, it may be more effective to join with a statewide
ridesharing agency to produce a spot that can receive broad
distribution.
News Shows. One strategy for involving local TV stations in
an HOV marketing campaign is to
generate newsworthy activities which will attract the attention of
local TV news shows. HOV lane openings are newsworthy events, and
should receive wide coverage.
Talk Shows. Local talk shows and community affairs programs
offer another opportunity to use TV to promote HOV lanes. To
schedule talk show appearances, HOV marketing personnel should
phone the show's producers directly and provide a clear idea of the
proposed subject matter, speakers, and campaign aims.
Outreach Videos: As an alternative to (or in addition to) a
30-second public service announcement, a longer, five-to-ten-minute
video presentation documenting the reasons for HOV lanes, the
benefits of ridesharing, and the penalties for using the lanes
illegally can serve a variety of functions. Such a Video can serve
as the core of outreach presentations to community groups; be used
as a mail-out piece to institutions and organizations; and provide
program material for newscasts and talk shows on VHF, UHF, and
Cable TV stations. Outreach videos can be produced at relatively
low cost using the "news magazine" format currently popular on TV.
The accompanying exhibit contains some sample titles of public
information videos on HOV topics produced by a variety of
jurisdictions, along with the names of contacts able to provide
information on each video's availability.
2-68
.
2-69
D MARKETING MATERIALS
9. OUTDOOR ADVERTISING
Billboards, transit advertising, and roadside signs afford the
campaign the opportunity of reaching drivers while they are
actually traveling In HOV corridors.
Billboards. Billboards can be an effective channel for
reaching targeted populations with public education messages
dealing with construction, carpooling, and the coming of HOV lanes.
There is little better way to reach drivers directly with timely
messages than when they are actually on the road driving-billboard
messages target the users of the routes in question and hit them
"where they live." Several jurisdictions, notably Minneapolis and
Seattle, have used billboards effectively to advise corridor
drivers of the coming of HOV lanes.
Many billboard companies routinely offer a certain portion of
their rentals to public agencies. You may find in your region that
there is a billboard "pool" manager who deals with requests for
donated billboard space. He or she may act as a broker with all of
the local billboard companies to arrange for a posting of public
service messages. Depending on the season or the local economy,
there may be unrented billboard space which can be offered for
public service campaigns.
Budget permitting, a certain amount of paid billboard
placement might be able to leverage additional donated postings
over those available in the absence of any purchased billboard
space.
Transit Advertising. Bus-side advertising is another form of
outdoor advertising which can be used effectively in HOV marketing
efforts. HOV marketeers in Seattle purchased advertising space on
the sides of buses used on the I-5 corridor to reinforce the
message sent to cars stuck in the mixed flow lanes as buses sped by
them.
Roadside Advertising. The Virginia Department of
Transportation (VDOT) used a series of roadside signs carrying
punchy poetry similar to the old Burma Shave jingles to advertise
the coming of HOV lanes in Hampton Roads and on the Dulles Toll
Road. Two examples of jingles used in Hampton Roads appear below.
.
A similar approach had been suggested for the changeable
message signs on the Santa Monica Freeway (see Exhibit). While the
Burma Shave jingles were widely praised in Hampton Roads, a similar
approach was criticized on the Dulles Toll Road.
2-70
D. MARKETING MATERIALS
9. OUTDOOR ADVERTISING
EXHIBIT: DIAMOND LANE JINGLES SUGGESTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR THE
PRESERVATION OF BURMA SHAVE SIGNS IN AMERICA
.
Erected a year before the HOV lanes were introduced, some of the
early Dulles signs were criticized as being too vague. One such
series carried the poem:
.
After HOV restrictions had been rescinded on the Dulles Toll
Road, the signs carried a new set of messages, one of which read:
.
VDOT was criticized in the press for using public funds to
construct and manage the signs. The different reception accorded
the roadside jingles in the successful Hampton Roads project and
the unsuccessful Dulles Access Road project is another
manifestation of the observation that it's easy to market a good
product, but that no amount of marketing can salvage a flawed
concept. In the case of HOV lanes, media attacks can sour the
public on every aspect of a flawed project, from the marketing to
the management.
2-71
PLANNING 2
D. MARKETING MATERIALS
10. OFFICIAL SIGNING
Official roadside signs provide marketing opportunities to
post information regarding rideshare numbers, minimum fines, and
HOV support facilities.
General Signing Guidelines. General signing and pavement
marking requirements and guidelines for HOV facilities are
contained in the Federal Highway Administration's Manual on Uniform
Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD). Two sections specifically address
preferential lanes: Section 2B-20, Preferential Lane Signing; and
Section 3B-22, Preferential Lane Markings: Those sections
establish requirements for (1) The regulatory nature of required
signing; (2) The message format for the signing; and (3) The
elongated diamond symbol to be used with both signing and pavement
markings. Examples of Side- and Overhead-Mounted HOV signs from
the MUTCD appear below.
.
Information Signing. Signings and markings for actual HOV
projects are normally applied on a project-by-project basis
following the principles of MUTCD. The use of roadside information
signing - following MUTCD guidelines provides a unique opportunity
to send daily marketing messages to corridor drivers. Examples of
informational signs with a marketing content appear below.
.
2-72
.
Support Facility Signing. Signing for HOV support facilities
such as transit stations and park-and-ride lots provide additional
opportunities for constructing marketing messages along the right-
of-way. Trailblazing signs directing drivers to these facilities
can be liberally positioned along the right-of-way, so long as they
conform to MUTCD guidelines. Some states permit the logo of the
local transit agency or transportation department to be included on
the signs. Examples of trailblazing signs for support facilities
appear below.
.
2-73
PLANNING 2
D. MARKETING MATERIALS
11. PREMIUMS
Premiums Incorporating the program logo can help to keep
the project's Image before the public. Bumper strips are
particularly valuable in this regard, while more personal Items
such as coffee mugs can serve as reminders for members of the
working press.
The general term "premiums" incorporates the full realm of
individual products, pamphlets, trinkets, and doodads that can be
distributed to keep the name and/or slogan of a campaign in the
public eye. Your home and office is undoubtedly littered with such
premiums; calendars from the dry cleaners; digital clocks from
Sports Illustrated, key fobs from the service.station; paper
weights from your insurance agents a political button from a
candidate for Sheriff, etc. Each of these premiums can do an
effective job of keeping their sponsor's name in front of you on a
regular basis. The selective use of premiums can be effective in
HOV marketing campaigns, particularly in two areas: (1) for
distribution to representatives of the press and community
organizations; and (2) for outdoor "advertising" purposes in the
form of bumperstrips, car shades, T-shirts, decals, and badges.
Coffee mugs and specially-imprinted desk items are good
premiums to distribute to members of the press. They could be
included with initial press kit s or distributed with personal
visits. These premiums have a way of sticking around and reminding
the reporter or editor of your marketing message.
For the general public, bumperstrips can be a useful premium
for public information campaigns. Bumperstrips provide an
additional avenue for outdoor advertising, and research suggests
that bumperstrips rank relatively high as a means of conveying
traffic safety messages. On the other hand, research (Billheimer
and Soloman, 1982) also suggests that small personal premiums such
as matchbooks and key fobs are not generally recognized or
remembered by the public at large.
Premiums should incorporate the program logo and/or slogan
and, if possible, be somehow linked to the HOV marketing effort.
Examples of premiums used in past HOV marketing and traffic safety
campaigns appear below.
Traffic Jam Jars . Virginia DOT produced small jars of grape
"Traffic Jam" as reminders of the congestion problem. These jars
were given to business, government, media, and public opinion
leaders who attend a half-day transportation conference of "jam
sessions" designed to explore ways of solving the region's traffic
problems. The invitations for the session echoed the Burma Shave
jingles, used to advertise the coming of Virginia's HOV lanes (See
Section 2-D-9):
We're all in this jam
Like grapes in a bunch
So join us for breakfast
And be gone by lunch.
.
Post-It Notes. Seattle marketers used post-it notes to
advertise the coming of the I-5 HOV lanes. These notes were
distributed by janitorial services to desks in downtown office
buildings and did double duty, reminding both the sender and
receiver of the notes of the HOV message.
2-74
.
2-75
Litter Bags. Minnesota DOT developed litter bags advertising
the coming of Express Lanes on I-394 (see Exhibit).
Calendar. Minnesota DOT also developed wall calendars which
were handed out during the grand opening of I-394. Each month
contained a view of the new express lanes and their supporting
systems, along with a brief pitch for ridesharing. The expense of
the calendar was defrayed by twelve business partners who each
placed their logo on a calendar page.
Car Shades. Folding cardboard sunscreens, or car shades" make
useful premiums in hot climates. They have been used successfully
in promoting designated driver projects (Billheimer and Moore,
1987) and have a natural linkage with automobiles. Like
bumperstrips, they provide a form of outdoor advertising when they
appear in cars throughout the project area.
2-76
SECTION THREE
IMPLEMENTING
THE CAMPAIGN
IMPLEMENTING 3
A. MEDIA RELATIONS
1. ORIENTATION
A strong media relations program Is a major key to gaining
public support of HOV projects. If possible, a full-time staff
person should be dedicated to project liaison and public
Information.
"Good media relations are more important than advertising in
ensuring project success.
Al Pint, Minnesota I-394 Corridor Manager
Overview. There is an old Latin phrase, still taught, to
school children, "Vestis virum facit," roughly translated to mean
"The clothes make the man." "Dress for Success" is still a best
seller. "Image is Everything" is the advertising slogan for a
popular camera. While we don't really believe that you can or
should "judge a book by Rs cover," and will emphasize repeatedly
that you should not try to make a "silk purse out of a sow's ear,"
the public perception of an HOV project is nevertheless a critical
part of its success.
Like a newspaper photograph, which when observed closely is
actually a pattern of dots, the sum total of all the project's
coordinated media efforts will be the image that the public has of
the reconstruction effort.
Understanding the needs and the problems of the media is one
of the most important aspects of your media relations plan. When a
reporter calls requesting information it is essential that he or
she be dealt with candidly, accurately and promptly: Reporters are
always under unreasonable deadline pressures. If you hedge, or
fail to respond quickly it will be noted in their story. I you
provide inflated self-praise, or try to cover up a real problem it
will come back to haunt you and hurt the project, as it has in some
noteworthy HOV project failures.
Primary Spokesperson. The necessity for a dear and single
"voice" for a project is one of the most important reasons to
assign and identify a single project spokesperson whenever
possible. This person should be adept as a communicator, and be
able to speak in an informed and helpful manner. He or she can
become well-versed on the technical aspects of the project from
project engineers, but need not, and perhaps should not, be a
technical person himself or herself. The spokesperson becomes the
focal point for press inquiries and public statements. Reporters
and community organization leaders need to know who to call for
information and answers. And having a single spokesperson helps
avoid the perception on the part of the media that they are getting
a bureaucratic runaround.
Accompanying Materials: Newspapers need information, charts,
maps and photographs. Television needs pictures. Providing the
television media with opportunities to collect footage, before and
during HOV lane openings will make their jobs easier. If possible,
provide the television reporters with "B-roll: footage" of traffic
Jams, smog, a shot of the Clean Air Act being signed by the
President, a graphic chart that shows how many cars are likely to
be taken off the road, etc. - all may end up in their coverage.
Lessons Learned from Other Projects: The appointment of a
single I-394 Corridor Manager enabled MN/DOT to orchestrate the
formal articulation of key messages and ensured that media
representatives could get consistent, credible answers to questions
as they arose. They provided the media with weekly press releases,
a press kit, a press tour of the HOV lanes prior to the Grand
Opening and made appearances on public affairs programs.
3-2
.
As a result of these steps, the press and electronic media
generally placed I-394 activities in a favorable light, reported
ongoing developments accurately and generated positive news
coverage for the project. On opening day, for example, the press
staged a "race" along the length of the project between a carpool
and a single occupant vehicle. The race was won handily by the car
poolers.
In Santa Monica, planners predicted that there would be strong
adverse public reaction to the conversion of mixed-flow lanes to
the Diamond Lanes. And the in-house media team did try to provide
public information about the positive aspects of the project. They
had a well-funded and thorough marketing plan that included press
conferences, newspaper ads, and the distribution of 120,000
brochures to the drivers at on-ramps. But following the disastrous
opening day, participating agencies were on the defensive and many
were pointing fingers at one another. Initial supporters of the
concept found it politic to lay low. It was not until after two
months of brutal media pounding that a professional media team was
brought on board. Although they tried to generate support and
rebutt some of the criticisms, it was much too late. As noted in
the appendix case study (see Appendix A-4), it is unlikely that the
best marketing campaign in the world could have saved the project.
3-3
A. MEDIA RELATIONS
2. PRESS KITS
Press kits containing samples of all media materials and
suggestions for their Integrated use can help promote both press
coverage and community Involvement.
orientation and Purposes: The process of preparing a
comprehensive press kit can be a valuable exercise for HOV project
marketing personnel. As the"bible" of campaign information, the
HOV project press kit should be prepared with target audiences in
mind. The primary use of the project press kit is for generating
press coverage and serving as a resource for the reporters,
editors, and assignment personnel at radio and television stations,
newspapers and other periodicals. The secondary purpose is as an
accessory to constituency building and the promotion of community
involvement. Press kits should be scrupulously accurate. A good
press kit adds credibility to the campaign--and provides valuable
information to crucial audiences targeted by the project.
Contents: Although there are many different formats for press
kits, we recommend a comprehensive organization of material that
has something for everybody. The cover of the press kit should
incorporate the project logo or primary ID and be attractive in
design. Press kit covers can be printed up in advance, and then
bound with internal information as the need arises. Press kits
should include a table of contents, and perhaps first up a one- or
two-page project summary. This summary should be a condensation of
all the crucial information of a project: scheduling and timing,
funding, agencies involved, corridor description, benefits of the
project--and key motivational messages.
A question and answer (Q & A) section is an effective way of
quickly and succinctly answering frequently asked questions.
Anticipate questions from the press, community organizations and
members of the public and put them into the Q & A format. (See
Section 3-E-3 for sample questions from existing HOV projects.)
Additional components of a good HOV project press kit could
include: corridor maps, fact sheets on individual phases of a
project; campaign clip art and/or clip ads for inclusion in press
coverage or newsletters; project schedules; and agency contact
people with their phone and fax numbers. Duplicate and bind the
press kits in quantities appropriate for short term needs. It Will
be important to update the summaries, Q&A's and other sections on a
frequent basis to keep the information current.
Distribution: The press kit can be made available for
attendees at public hearing press briefings, special events, and as
a mail-out to leaders of community organizations, neighborhood
associations and to those making inquiries via a project hotline or
800 number. During the initial phase of a project, key personnel
should schedule appointments with reporters and organizational
leaders from the campaign data base and hand the press kits out
personally in face-to-face meetings.
3-4
.
3-5
A. MEDIA RELATIONS
3. PRESS RELEASES
Press releases should be succinct, accurate, and timely. They
should be used sparingly to announce Important project developments
such as special events, lane openings, and construction timetables.
Format: Press releases should be succinctly worded,
incorporating the basic elements of news writing. The effective
press release should include: the letterhead of the issuing agency
or HOV campaign (with logo), a good summary headline, the date of
release, "For Immediate Release," the contact person(s) for the
release with their phone, and perhaps their fax or pager numbers.
The basic "who, what, where, why and when" of the release should be
summarized in the initial two paragraphs of the release. Quotes
from project or agency personnel can help to personalize the
message. Most effective press releases do not exceed two pages in
length. Fact sheets or additional data can be included as an
appendix to a press release. The Associated Press Stylebook and
other guides are valuable resources for writing press releases and
news stories. Here again, the press release task should be left to
those who do them best--either the on-project public liaison or the
public relations consultants on board for the campaign.
Issuing Press Releases: Press releases with no crucial time
value can be mailed first class to the appropriate recipients. On
time-sensitive releases, you can send a facsimile transmission of
the press release, and follow ft up with a mailed hard copy. Many
fax machines are now available which have a large programmable
memory. Project communication offices can program in the fax
numbers of key media personnel, and then send a single release
simultaneously, after-hours, to the recipients. In every instance,
it is good press relations protocol to follow up by phone with key
recipients and ask if they've received the release and if they have
any further questions.
Wire and News Services: There are a wide variety of news
services in most media markets which serve as clearinghouses for
other forms of electronic and print media. Announcements of
special events or public hearings are especially appropriate
notices to post on these news services--followed up by personal
phone calls, of course.
"Your credibility is like your virginity--once you lose it,
it's gone forever."
Unattributed
Maintaining Credibility. Everything you put out in public in
the form of a press release or other formal statement should be
accurate and credible. Reporters and media outlets develop a sense
of trust with project media representatives. If they're getting
incomplete or inaccurate information, that sense of trust is
diminished, and it becomes harder to generate positive coverage of
the project. It's also important to avoid papering your contact's
offices with press releases. Only issue press releases on
important developments of a project--construction timetables,
special events, lane openings, and the like. Also, avoid the "cry
wolf" syndrome. There are enough pitfalls out there so that you
don't need to be an alarmist or invent them.
Case Study References: The majority of HOV projects covered
in the case studies of Appendix A used press releases primarily to
announce the opening of new lanes or to announce special events.
In the I-5 project in Seattle, the five major newspapers were
targeted for coverage, and press releases were used to generate
coverage as close to the lane opening as possible. In the Santa
Monica project, CALTRANS sent out two press releases prior to the
lane opening. In addition, the two participating bus lines also
sent out three releases each during the week before the opening._
These releases might have been better timed if they had been
staggered so as not to deluge reporters with six press releases in
the period of just a few days.
3-6
A. MEDIA RELATIONS
3. PRESS RELEASES
EXHIBIT: SAMPLE VDOT PRESS RELEASE ON I-66
NEWS RELEASE
Virginia Department of Transportation
EMBARGOED UNTIL Contact: Mary Anne Reynolds
1 p.m., February 18, 1993 Joan Morris
Stacy Pruitt
703/934-7350 (w)
703/241-1809 (h)
VDOT IS LISTENING:
NEW I-66 HOVS WILL OPEN APRIL 27 AS HOV-2
only two people in a carpool will be needed to use the new
High occupancy Vehicle lanes which open April 27 on I-66 outside
the Capital Beltway, Virginia transportation officials announced
today.
The HOV-2 requirement means carpools will be easier to form
and more commuters can reap the benefits of carpooling, according
to Virginia Transportation Secretary John G. Milliken, who made the
announcement at a news conference in Arlington.
These are the first HOV lanes in Northern Virginia to open as
HOV-2, and the occupancy requirement will be raised to HOV-3 when
the HOV lanes become so crowded that the incentive to carpool is
diminished.
"In the long run, only HOV-3 can make a lasting difference and
accommodate growth on I-66,11 said Milliken.
"But we've been listening to commuters -- who've said in
surveys, in small groups, on VDOT's hotline and in person -that
HOV-2 is the best way to establish a solid base for HOV-3."
When HOV goes into effect April 27, motorists in the regular
lanes will keep three travel lanes -- they will not lose a lane.
They can expect a modest improvement in traffic flow overall but
still will experience stop-and-go traffic, Transportation
Commissioner Ray D. Pethtel said.
on opening day, the eastbound HOV lane at its busiest stretch
is expected to move 2,950 people between 7 and 8 a.m., while each
regular lane moves 1,560 people.
And the HOV lane will accomplish that with fewer cars.
3-7
IMPLEMENTING 3
A. MEDIA RELATIONS
4. PERSONNEL TRAINING
Project spokespersons who Interact with radio, television and
OR newspaper reporters should be well-prepared, presentable, and
should receive advanced training In dealing with the media.
"it usually takes me more than three weeks to prepare a good
impromptu speech."
Mark Twain
As is recommended in other sections of this manual, it is
extremely important to engage a public spokersperson for an HOV
project who is well-trained in media relations and who possesses
strong communication skills. You wouldn't ask Peter Jennings to
build a cloverleaf and shouldn't be surprised if project engineers
don't sum things up as well as Peter does. Effective communication
to large audiences Via the printed or electronic media is a skill
that requires experience and training. The key to good media
presentations is to be accurate, articulate, succinct and non-
detached. No easy task, and one which requires experience and
training.
Training and Rehearsal: Even professional public relations
spokespersons can benefit greatly from rehearsals and training.
Prior to press events or media appearances, go through "dry runs"
where the event or talk show is simulated. Prepare lists of
expected questions from members of the press or program hosts and
callers-in and respond to them, document the responses, then
critique them for accuracy and positive PR values. We think it is
helpful to anticipate "worst case scenarios," even though the worst
may not ever occur. What are the most damaging questions you are
likely to be asked, and how do you best respond to them in an
accurate and self-effacing manner? If your spokespersons are well-
prepared for the nasty questions, they will be well-equipped to
respond to the friendly ones.
Appearance: Spokespersons should not only be able to speak
well and respond intelligently to questions, they should be good.
As public faces for the project, personnel who appear on the media
become linked in the public mind with the project as a whole. A
poorly dressed or groomed, paunchy spokesperson will give the
project an image as being poorly dressed and paunchy itself. For
television appearances and photo opportunities, project media
personnel should wear conservative and attractive clothing, and
avoid clothes which are highly patterned or clashing, and those
which are red or blue (because of potential video and photographic
difficulties).
Soundbites: Television and radio reporters, in particular,
are looking for a good seven to ten second "soundbite." A soundbite
is media jargon for a short, clear statement that answers the
question or provides a description in a manner that people can
clearly and quickly understand. Bartiett's Quotations is filled
with examples of effective historical soundbites, even though most
of the authors were not aware that they were in training for 20th
century media relations. Examples of classic soundbites are
presented in this section of the Guide. In terms of HOV project
soundbites, make sure to incorporate project slogans, titles, logos
and imagery in all public presentations, to reinforce the project's
other marketing and promotional products and activities.
Lessons from Case Studies. In an attempt to counter any
negative image left by the early failure of the Route 44 lanes in
Virginia, the project HOV Steering Committee made a point of
employing top-echelon personnel from the sponsoring transportation
agencies whenever a spokesperson was needed to address the public
regarding project plans and policies. John Milliken, Virginia's
Secretary of Transportation, gave the keynote speech at the
Transportation conference preceding the opening of the lanes. The
use of top level personnel sent the clear message that the
individual agencies had strong top-down support for the HOV
concept.
3-8
IMPLEMENTING 2
A. MEDIA RELATIONS
4. PERSONNEL TRAINING
EXHIBIT: A HANDFUL OF CLASSIC "SOUNDBITES"
"Diamonds are a girl's best friend."
Jules Styne and Hoagey Carmichael
"Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes.
Overheard at the battle of Bunker Hill
"Fewer Cars Means Less Pollution/Be a part of the solution."
VDOT Advertising jingle
"I have not yet begun to fight."
John Paul Jones
"Express Yourself
Express Lanes Advertising Slogan
"Nice guys finish last.
Leo Durocher
"He can run, but he can't hide.
Joe Louis, on opponent Billy Conn
"This time HOV Goes the Distance."
VDOT Advertising Slogan
"In the future, everyone will be famous for fifteen minutes."
Andy Warhol
"Diamond is Rough"
Los Angeles Herald Examiner Headlines on Santa Monica Diamond
Lanes
"All I know is what I read In the papers."
Will Rogers
"Any club that would accept me as a member, I wouldn't want to
join."
Groucho Marx
For many years in California, law enforcement public affairs
officers have been trained in media relations through workshops
conducted by television reporting professionals. Videotaped
interview sessions and immediate feedback are the keys to these
effective workshops. Participants are asked a variety of questions
by the TV reporter, ranging from supportive to hostile, and then
the videotapes of the interviews are critiqued by both the media
experts and the interviewees themselves. One particular media
trainer even employs such tricky tactics as lowering the microphone
to his side and pretending it is no longer live while letting both
the microphone and the video camera run and eliciting "off the
record" comments from subjects who are convinced they are off -
camera. While reporters of your HOV project will not necessarily
be tricky or deceitful, your spokespersons should know to be
vigilant at all times in their representations concerning the
project.
3-9
IMPLEMENTING 3
B. ADVERTISING PLACEMENT
1. RADIO
Stated simply, radio Is the best paid marketing medium for an
on HOV project to reach commuters. Paid radio campaigns should
feature sponsorships of syndicated traffic reports, supplemented by
spot placements on several major area stations during key,
marketing campaign junctions.
Rationale: Radio advertising of commute alternatives hits
listeners when they are most susceptible to the campaign appeals of
the campaign during peak traffic times and during maximum
congestion periods. Messages can be directed at the commuter
precisely at the time they are the most affected.
Spot-Radio. Spot Radio placement describes the placement of
paid radio spots at prespecified times and schedules. Radio spots
are placed on the basis of the "day parts" in which they are
broadcast. In the order of audience size, radio day parts are
commonly called AM Drive (normally 6-10 a.m.), PM Drive (3-7 p.m.
in most markets, Mid-Day (10 a.m. - 3 p.m.), Evening (7 p.m. to
Midnight), and All Night (Midnight to 6 a.m.). Note that the two
most popular radio day parts are the drive times" and not by
accident commuters listen to the radio when they are in their cars.
Spots can be placed on a specific schedule, e.g. one spot each
on Thursday and Friday AM Drives, or placed in a station rotation
called a Total Audience Plan (TAP plan). TAP plans are the most
economical, but you cannot control when the spots are going to air,
and many of your spots will be broadcast in non-commute times. A
single 60-second spot in AM Drive time on a market-leading station
in a large market can run anywhere from $500 to perhaps $2,000.
Lengths and Formats of Spots . Radio spots are normally
produced in either 60- or 30second lengths, although more and more
stations are broadcasting spots of shorter duration. 30second spots
customarily cost about 75% of the rate for a 60-second spot, so the
60's normally represent a better bargain. Pre-produce your
project's spots using high production values. Try to incorporate
music and/or humor where possible to lighten messages and increase
listener attention. Match your radio spots to the station's format
and the preferences of target audiences. Country and Western spots
won't play well on the classical stations. Use professionals to
produce, announce, and record a project's spots.
Syndicated Traffic Report Sponsorships: The purchase of
sponsorship "slates" on syndicated radio traffic reports can be an
extremely important component of an effective paid radio HOV
campaign. Syndicated traffic report sponsorships are used by the
majority of AM and FM radio stations in most markets, either
exclusively or to supplement in-house traffic reports. You are
undoubtedly-familiar with the format of syndicated traffic reports,
such as "This is Sandy with Metro Traffic Control,: and this
traffic update is brought to you by Diamonds in the Rough. At 6:35
a.m., a three-car accident occurred in lane number two of the
eastbound Eisenhower just before Cicero. Illinois State Police
have cleared the accident to the center divider, but rubberneckers
have slowed traffic to a standstill for two miles. The carpool
lanes on the northbound Tri-State are now operating, so that
vehicles with three or more can breeze through traffic all the way
to O'Hare."
Particulars. Traffic report syndicators exist in all of the
major metropolitan areas of the U.S., but as a specific example,
consider the situation in the S.F. Bay Area. There are two major
traffic report syndicators, Metro Traffic and Shadow Broadcasting
Services. Metro Traffic transmits traffic reports to 45 S.F. Bay
Area radio stations, while Shadow Broadcasting Services has a
stable of 19 Bay Area radio stations. Traffic update sponsorship
customarily takes two forms: either a sponsorship line and a 10-
second "live read" by the traffic reporter, or a sponsorship tag
and a 15-second commercial prior to or after the actual traffic
report. Placement is made by purchasing a specified number of
spots per month, such as 125 or 250 spots. Your slates and
messages are aired on all subscribing stations, and may even be
customized on a daily basis. Although these sponsorships are
relatively expensive, they are most
3-10
.
appropriate to the task at hand. Placement occurs during peak
commute hours, when the desired target audience is largely traffic-
bound in their cars. A significant advantage of purchasing
sponsorships with these syndicators is that-they often offer
substantial Tree" spots to public service and transportation
agencies to accompany the paid schedule. Traffic report
sponsorship is therefore a relatively economical means of reaching
the largest possible audience with appropriately-targeted messages.
As with all paid advertising, time your schedules to coincide with
important HOV project events, and use qualified consultants to
negotiate and place the advertising.
Lessons from Case Studies: In Virginia, VDOT and TRT
sponsored live "reads" by traffic reporters during morning and
afternoon drive times. They felt that these messages sounded more
like "reporting" than public service messages and that the
sponsorships also improved the reporters view of the lanes. On the
Long Island Expressway Project, in the nation's most expensive
radio market, project planners have purchased commercial drive time
ads on three major local radio stations.
3-11
B. ADVERTISING PLACEMENT
2. BILLBOARDS
Billboards are rented on a monthly basis at rates that depend
on size, location number, timing, Illumination and production
requirements. Many billboard companies routinely donate billboard
rentals to public service projects.
As described previously in this manual, billboards are an
effective channel for reaching drivers while they are experiencing
the frustrations of traffic congestion.
Identifying Billboard Companies: Billboard companies may be
identified in the Yellow Pages of phone directories under the
category "Advertising - Outdoor." If you are employing an
advertising agency, they will have contact with the major billboard
companies in your area. In most media markets, two or three
billboard companies will own the majority of boards in the region,
with smaller independents picking up the remainder. Some major
national billboard companies are Gannett Outdoor, Patrick Media
Group, 3M/National, to mention a few.
Paid Billboard Space: Billboards are rented on a monthly
basis at rates that depend on size, location, number, timing,
illumination and production requirements. Billboard rental fees
vary most widely depending upon their location. Rental is most
commonly on a monthly basis. Boards on major freeways - where HOV
projects, naturally, are located - are the most desirable boards
and therefore,the most expensive. Transportation agencies can use
their own traffic flow data to pick billboard locations with the
greatest exposure to drivers. Corporate marketers actually use
accident statistics at intersections to select their locations.
How many billboards should you rent? It really depends on the
nature of your message and the phase of the project. Let your
professional consultants make a recommendation based upon those
factors.
Public -Service Billboard Donations: Depending on the nature
of your project, you can probably obtain donated billboard rental
space from the billboard companies. Most have a public service
section which fields and approves requests for donated space. It
will undoubtedly be necessary to pay for the silkscreening of the
billboard sheets and a posting fee - perhaps more than $100 per
board - it is the only actual space rental fees that are donated.
The timing and duration of the posting for donated billboards are
not within your strict control. So donated boards are best used
for general good will purposes-- not for closely timed and targeted
messages. Those messages should be reserved for "d placement at
times and locations of your choosing.
Designing and Producing Billboards: Creating good billboards
is an art in itself. Using professional graphic designers is
important here, because they know the technical and artistic design
requirements for outdoor advertising. Billboards are most commonly
silkscreened on rugged, weather resistant material in common sizes
- the most common being a "30-sheet" billboard. Billboards may be
created in one-, two- or full-color processes. Most markets have a
handful of billboard silkscreening companies - and your billboard
company will tell you who they are used to working with. Some
billboards are hand-painted, but this is a very expensive process
which most HOV projects would want to avoid.
3-12
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3-13
IMPLEMENTING 3
B. ADVERTISING PLACEMENT
3. PAID TELEVISION ADVERTISING
The good news is that the majority of Americans get their OR
news and motivation from television. The bad news is that you
probably can't afford to pay for production and placement.
Two thirds of Americans get most of their news from
television. Fifty percent get all their news from television. A
recent survey indicated that television reaches 98% of the
population of the U.S. and that the average TV set in an American
home is turned on from six to eight hours a day. The impact of
television is well-known and quite obvious. As one example, within
36 hours of a television documentary on the famine in Ethiopia a
few years ago, the "Save the Children Foundation" received 10,000
phone calls.
Unfortunately, HOV lane marketers cannot commonly use the paid
TV airwaves to broadcast their motivational and informational
messages. Although production costs can be kept in line, placement
costs are normally prohibitive, regardless of the media market.
Therefore, HOV lane marketers must use the "free" lines of access
to television audiences by utilizing public service advertising,
talk shows, free speech messages, and other"free" access to the
television airwaves.
Production Cost. A decent television public service
announcement can be produced for between $5,000 and $20,000. A
high-quality 30-second TV commercial for a national advertiser
would cost a minimum of $100,000 and could often run to seven
figures, depending upon the sophistication of the spot. What does
that tell you? It tells you that paid TV is out of the picture for
most HOV projects. If you are able to produce television
announcements, enlist the support and production capabilities of a
local network, independent or cable public access station to ease
the financial burden.
Local Placement. When a local advertiser places television
spots on a local network or independent station prime time show, he
or she is buying space on what are called "station breaks." That
means that, for instance, the payment for placement is made for a
spot which will be broadcast at the opening and conclusion of a
particular TV show. For instance, if you bought a 30-second spot
on 60-Minutes on your local CBS station, you would be paying for a
spot that would be likely aired after the closing credits, or prior
to the opening .
Cable TV Advertising. As an alternative to rather expensive
network affiliate advertising in a local market, HOV marketers with
a sufficient budget might consider placing spots on cable
television outlets or systems. Ad placement on cable channels such
as CNN, MTV, and ESPN is surprisingly reasonable in cost. That's
why you see so many hokey, home-made ads at times on these
channels. You are not able to control the scheduling of the
broadcast of the ads as well as on network TV, but the cost
benefits may overshadow this inconvenience. Your advertising
consultants will be able to recommend an appropriate timing and
scheduling of cable TV advertising.
3-15
IMPLEMENTING 3
B. ADVERTISING PLACEMENT
4. TELEVISION PUBLIC SERVICE ANNOUNCEMENTS
Public service announcements (PSAS) featuring high OR
production quality and issues of local Interest stand the best
chance of obtaining air time on most local TV stations.
Many public outreach campaign managers find that they develop
a love/hate relationship with television public service
announcements and the process which yields them air time. On the
one hand, television is a powerful medium and the free airtime is
there for the taking. On the other hand, the time available for
PSAs is not normally prime and the competition for that time can be
fierce and frustrating.
Our experience has led to two basic conclusions regarding
television public service advertising: (1) Your PSAs have to be of
high quality and of local concern in the media markets in which
you're operating; and (2) You should give personal, but not
overbearing, attention to promoting the spots with the Public
Service Directors of the television stations in your markets.
The Public Service Directors at many television stations may
be found deep in the bowels of the facility, surrounded by
seemingly unmanageable piles of boxes, video reels and file
folders. At any time, they,Will have to make broadcast decisions
from an inventory of 50 to 300 competing PSA tapes. The manager of
a public outreach program must personally reach Public Service
Directors, cultivate support for the project, and pull the
project's PSAs out from the morass of messages from other worthy
organizations. Once a PSA is actually in the rotation, it's likely
to get a substantial run of three to nine months before being
retired.
Most Public Service Directors indicate that they have a
preference for (1) well-produced spots and/or (2) spots of local
interest. Some basic rules in reaching and cultivating public
service directors are listed below:
. Develop and maintain an accurate list of Public Service
Directors, with names, correct addresses, and titles.
. Whenever possible, hand-carry tapes to Public Service
Directors, along with scripts and appropriate background
material. Rapport established through these visits can--
increase the air time given to your tapes.
. Once PSAs have been distributed, follow up with a phone call
to the Public Service Director, and personal visits to discuss
such topics as:
- Station policies for airing PSAs
- Lead times for entering PSAs in the system
- Perceived strengths and shortcomings of past campaigns;
and
- Station support for current, past, and future campaigns.
. Offer and deliver commendations or other official thanks to
those stations who have gone the extra mile to help out your
program.
Public Service Directors often appreciate personal attention
and enjoy involvement in good public outreach programs. But care
should be taken not to badger these people with requests. Remember
that you're asking for their help, not demanding it.
3-16
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3-17
IMPLEMENTING 3
B. ADVERTISING PLACEMENT
5. NEWSPAPERS
HOV Project personnel should focus their efforts on attempts
to create newsworthy events which will generate newspaper coverage.
The placement of newspaper advertising should be kept at a very
modest level, to encourage positive editorial coverage, to achieve
cost economies, and to reach targeted commuter audiences only
during key project milestones.
Rationale and Potential -Placement: Because of the relatively high
cost of targeting display newspaper advertising to specific
populations, we recommend only a modest schedule of newspaper
placement in the HOV lane corridors during construction starts and
lane openings. Placing a modicum of paid advertising - but some -
also lets your newspapers know that you are serious about reaching
their readers - and can have the effect of enhancing editorial
coverage of the project by the paper. Newspaper advertising should
be reserved for special times in the progress of an HOV project, in
particular at construction commencement, when public hearings are
scheduled, and at lane openings.
Costs and Placement: Newspaper advertising not found in the
classified sections is called "Display Advertising." Rates are
based upon the size of the ad (the number of column inches In size
of the ad), the frequency of the advertising over a weekly period
or a year, and the placement of the advertising in particular
sections or positions. A half-page ad placed once in a major
metropolitan daily newspaper can run to five figures. A reasonably
economical alternative to specifically placed newspaper ads is
what's called ROP, "Run of the Paper." With these programs, you
can't control the placement of the ads within the newspaper, but
the paper has the flexibility to drop them in where they have
space, and therefore offer you cost savings. If your HOV project
runs through suburban areas with daily or weekly newspapers,
strongly consider these papers for advertising to target your
messages and achieve cost savings. Our school of advertising
thought suggests that it is much better to repeat newspaper ads of
smaller size more frequently than to run larger-sized ads once or
twice. Effective and economical newspaper ad placement is an art.
Let your advertising consultants propose a specific schedule for
your project, based upon commuter demographic information and key
project milestones.
Advantages and Disadvantages: While newspaper advertising can
be very effective for ongoing retail and service firms, it is not
very economical for HOV project use. One of the negative aspects
of paid newspaper advertising is the "fall-off" from full
readership to readership of a particular advertising (see Section
2-D-6). While, for example 200,000 people might read a particular
issue of a newspaper, only a small fraction of those, perhaps
10,000, might read your entire ad. Design your ads so that slogan
and headline are bold and clear, so that the reader can get the
gist of your message with a glance.
On the positive side, newspapers are important to opinion
leaders, and your message is well directed at them. Additionally,
a large proportion of commuters grab their morning news from the
paper prior to taking off in their cars. A well-placed ad can
steal their attention before they encounter the lanes of your
project.
Case Study References: In Santa Monica, the RTD, CALTRANS and
SMMBL all placed ads in the three major papers three weeks before
the opening of the lanes. SMMBL continued running the print ads
after the opening. Unfortunately, very little was allocated for
radio advertising, and the newspaper ads were soon outweighed by
the adverse comment on the editorial pages.
In the Long Island Expressway (LIE) HOV lane project,
marketers proposed to distribute newspaper supplements as well as
newspaper advertising as part of the mix for the most comprehensive
marketing strategy. The LIE project also designed a series of
weekly "Op-Ed" type advertisements in local community weeklies
beginning up to two months prior to commencement. These ads
featured a "Why HOV", message and advice on starting up a carpool
to utilize the new lanes.
3-18
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3-19
C. PROMOTION
1. DIRECT MAIL
Direct Mailings can be effective In economically reaching
specifically targeted audiences such as corridor residents, HOV
lane users, single auto drivers, violators, or employees of
specific businesses.
Direct mail, as you know from gazing through your stack of
mail at home, has proliferated - but has also become quite
sophisticated in its capabilities. While direct mail may have a
well-earned reputation as being "junk" mail, there are several
advantages to using this device to inform target audiences and
market HOV projects to drivers.
Advantages. It's called direct mail because it can be highly
"directed" - narrowly targeted to specific audiences' Sources of
mailing lists for targeted mail are numerous, and include: motor
vehicle department registration and licensing data; HOV project
databases; U.S. census tract information; private mailing lists;
registrants at public hearings; employer/employee lists; registrar
of voters household and resident lists, etc.
Direct mailings can be highly personalized - inside the
envelope and out. Even the science of labeling is an art. Direct
mail can be addressed to households, individuals by name, families,
or a variety of other appellations. In terms of formats, direct
mail runs the gamut from 8-1/2 x 11 " newsletters folded in half to
laser-printed personalized letters or heavy stock postal cards. A
good supplier can design a direct mail piece to help you achieve
what you want to accomplish. Oftentimes, the printing of a simple
outside message line, or "snipe" such as "I-880, a Diamond in the
Rough" communicates the essential information before the mailing
hits the trash can.
Direct mail is a relatively economical means to disseminate
information, because R is produced in high volumes and is subject
to the lower U.S. Postal Service bulk rates. Hand-affixed stamps
can be used to make mailings look more like first-class mail.
High-speed machinery for assembling mailing materials, inserting
letters, and labeling envelopes can ease the process substantially,
and there are many firms in each market that specialize in the
direct mail process.
Almost every HOV project case study reviewed utilized some
form of direct mail effectively - with newsletter mailings being a
favorite. In Minnesota, a direct mail package was sent to 65,000
households in the I-395 corridor. This package included a
"Commuter's Guide" brochure, project maps, the first issue of the
I-394 "Expressions" newsletter and bus schedules.
Disadvantages. The primary disadvantage is the "junk mail"
syndrome - that direct mail packages are widely ignored by the
recipients and considered to be little more than recycling fodder.
Another expressed disadvantage is the "big brother" stimga - the
possible mistrust of bulk mail sent by large government agencies.
The "big brother" problem of direct mail communication from
transportation agencies can sometimes be circumvented by having the
direct mail come directly from the HOV project office. Envelopes
could feature return addresses of the project public information
office, campaign logo and "quick-take" printed messages on the
outside surfaces of the mailing piece.
3-20
.
3-21
IMPLEMENTING 3
C. PROMOTION
2. RADIO AND TV APPEARANCES
Appearances on television, and particularly radio talk shows
should be actively sought for HOV project promotion. The primary
project spokesperson, accompanied by high-level agency management
technical experts, should make the appearances.
Talk and call-in programming is most prevalent on the AM band
radio stations in most media markets. Normally, the two or three
top stations in a market are the news/talk AM stations with large
audiences in morning and afternoon drive times. These talk shows
are outstanding vehicles for bringing HOV project information
directly to target audiences - drivers in their cars: These
programs are also excellent channels for reaching community and
opinion leaders as well as the general public. Because these
programs area FREE way of reaching large audiences, appearances on
them should be actively sought by project public relations
personnel.
Competition for guest appearances on the top news/talkradio
programs is stiff, but HOV lanes/highway reconstruction projects
are important topics for radio stations, because-the greatest
proportion of listeners are, in fact, automobile commuters. You
should encounter little-resistance, therefore, to your request for
appearances at appropriate times during the project. Try to
schedule your appearances at crucial junctions of the project, e.g.
construction starts, periods of greatest delay or traffic
diversion, and most certainly at the opening of the HOV lane
segments.
Producers and Booking. Most television and radio news/talk
show programs have their own producers - who are normally not the
on-air talent. These producers juggle the schedules, book the
guests, manage the programs, and generally are charged with keeping
things interesting and running smoothly. Your project staff or
public relations consultant should create a data base of local
news/talk radio and television programming, complete with the hours
of the program, producer, host and contact information. The
entertainment sections of daily newspapers list program times, and
often, scheduled guests and discussion topics. Perhaps a month
before crucial project events, contact the producers in your data
base and try to arrange for guest appearances.
Primary Targets. Your advertising and public relations
consultants can tell you the programming with the largest
audiences. _ Target these programs for guest appearances. Most
radio shows will be in AM and PM drive times, with some highly-
ranked call-in programs in mid-day segments (10 a.m. to 3 p.m.).
Call-in programs are desirable, because they allow your project
spokespersons to answer directly questions which are on the
commuter's minds. You can also seek to schedule appearances on
radio and television public service programming, but be aware that
most f these programs are prerecorded, and customarily air in the
wee hours of Sunday mornings.
Spokespersons. It is important to have experienced,
sophisticated spokespersons for several reasons. Because of the
large audiences, radio and TV appearances represent a great way to
help get the message out. However, a minor factual slip, or a faux
pas in front of a huge electronic crowd will ultimately do the
project more harm than good. A spokesperson who responds badly to
hostile questions from an interviewer or the callers can help fuel
a problem rather than soften it. It is important for the
spokesperson to be well connected to the upper levels of the HOV
agency to signal the public that the agency is solidly behind the
project and to make sure that public concerns are accurately
received by the HOV management team. Your primary project
spokesperson should make the guest appearances. Media and
communications talent is more important in this instance than
technical knowledge. You can and should include the chief project
engineer or agency official as well as to help provide quick and
accurate answers to listener questions.
Lessons Learned from Other Projects: In the case of the Santa
Monica Diamond Lanes, radio disc jockeys, news crews, and traffic
reporters quickly sided with the outraged commuters.
3-22
.
Examples of disc-jockey comments from opening day include: "You'll
get home tonight if -it takes all year," and "Someone wondered if
it costs any money. No, it's absolutely free to drive on the
Diamond Lane - it does cost $1.00 an hour to park there, however."
If these broadcasters had been better briefed in advance, they
might have been more understanding about the start-up problems and
would not have fueled the hostility being registered by those stuck
in traffic. As it was, their attacks left the HOV team on the
defensive from day one.
In the Seattle I-5 project, both major television stations did
positive news stories on the HOV lanes. They were invited on a bus
tour of the lanes which helped the television collect the footage
they needed for their stories. If film footage of the area is
already available to the HOV lane media staff, they should provide
it to the talk show producers so that it can be used to break the
visual monotony of the "Talking heads." Scheduling is important.
Many popular talk shows run after most drivers are already at work.
Pacific Rim Resources, the media consultants responsible for public
information on several Seattle HOV projects, offer this advice
about radio call-in shows: "Keep in mind that the people who
benefit the most from lane conversion will probably not be calling
in (they're all at work) unless your area has good call-in talk-
shows in the later pm hours. However, lots of drive-time radio
segments are generated in part by talk shows completed during
midday." (Pacific Rim Resources, 1993)
3-23
IMPLEMENTING 3
C. PROMOTION
3. COMPUTER COMMUNICATION
Developing communications technology allows campaigns to
go "On-Line" with HOV Project Information.
Modern information purveyors have a new arrow in their quiver:
electronic communication through computers using on-line systems.
Electronic Mail (E-Mail), internal corporate communications through
message boards, computer forums on the Internet information super
highway, on-line project maps and updates - all can play a positive
role in marketing HOV projects and providing information to road-
users.
Employer Communication: Large employers in certain industries
often communicate with their personnel through message boards that
are on the employee's computer workstation. These message boards
include E-mail between workers, announcements of corporate policy
or schedules of meetings, etc. Where the system permits, the HOV
campaign should provide employers with pertinent late-breaking
information, which can then be "sent" to the employee's
workstations. Suitably-equipped companies could also make
vanpooling, ridesharing and public transit information available
"on-line" their internal computer system. HOV project community
relations people can make computer information available to
employers or the general public on disks or via a modem.
Commercial On-Line Services: It may be possible to make HOV
project maps and information available to commercial on-line
services, such as Prodigy, America Online and CompuServe (currently
three of the systems with the largest subscriptions. Service
subscribers could then access the information if they live or work
in the HOV project corridor.
An example of the type of information which can be transmitted
over a commercial on-line service occurred in the aftermath of the
1994 Los Angeles earthquake. The main menu board of the Prodigy
network featured a map of the L.A. freeway system with all of the
damaged freeway areas clearly indicated. By ".
3-25
IMPLEMENTING 3
D. COMMUNITY RELATIONS
1. OVERVIEW
A positive community relations program is a natural outgrowth
of the constituency building activities undertaken during the
planning phase. Key program components Include public meetings,
business liaison activities, construction mitigation efforts, and
open channels for public feedback.
Public awareness and community involvement are of primary
importance throughout the HOV planning and implementation process.
A dedicated community outreach effort must be initiated and
maintained in order to keep key members of the community informed
of the project's purpose, progress, and projected impacts.. Key
elements of the community outreach effort include:
Public Meetings. Regular public meetings provide a means for
means for educating the community, a podium for answering
public questions, a channel for obtaining feedback, a forum
for assessing progress, and a platform for encouraging
community involvement.
Ridesharing Agencies. In most urban areas, public agencies or
non-profit organizations promote carpooling through
ridematching services, roadside signs, media campaigns, and
employer outreach programs. HOV marketing efforts should be
coordinated through these agencies to avoid duplication of
effort and get more bang for the advertising buck.
Business Liaison. Contact with the business community can be
made through Chambers of Commerce, ad-hoc committees of
affected businesses, Transportation Management Associations
(TMAs), company transportation coordinators, and other
avenues. These contacts can provide valuable project support
as well a forum for employer-based carpool programs.
Commercial Tie-Ins. Partnerships with private industry not
only stretch marketing dollars but also provide public
evidence of commercial support for the HOV concept.
Construction Mitigation. Construction mitigation activities
provide an additional opportunity to educate the public
regarding the purpose and use of HOV lanes.
Telephone Hotlines. Telephone hotlines provide a means of
obtaining -immediate feedback and communicating directly with
the public by answering questions, recording complaints, and
investigating problems.
Community relations programs represent a natural outgrowth and
continuation of the constituency building activities undertaken in
the planning phase of an HOV project (see Section 2B). The
database developed in building contingencies to support the
marketing program (See Section 2-B-2) is especially important in
maintaining positive community relations. This database should be
updated constantly, not only with the names of individuals and
organizations, but also with opportunities for coordination with
transportation fairs and cultural festivals.
3-26
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3-27
IMPLEMENTING 3
D. COMMUNITY RELATIONS
2. PUBLIC MEETINGS
Public meetings provide a means for educating the community, a
podium for answering public questions, a channel for obtaining
feedback, a forum for assessing progress, and a platform for
encouraging community Involvement.
Community meetings give the project team a conduit to several
important constituent groups. Stamm (1991) notes that these
meetings "...fulfill multiple purposes--they build constituencies,
create partnerships, foster support, develop accurate expectations,
and provide information which enhances future project planning
activities." She goes on to observe that meetings are most
successful when the HOV team asks for input and reaction to a set
of specific HOV treatments, issues or scenarios--that is, when the
team is prepared to listen as well as speak.
There are a number of occasions and formats for public
meetings. A few which have been used effectively on past HOV
projects are listed below.
Leaders Workshops. Leadership workshops provide a structured
process for briefing and soliciting the participation of
elected officials and community leaders.
Jurisdictional Briefings. Briefings for elected officials,
public organizations, community leaders, and affected
communities can be particularly effective when planning input
is required and at the time the project is ready to open.
Neighborhood Meetings. Neighborhood meetings provide an
opportunity for close interaction between project officials
and citizens directly affected by the project.
Open House/Transportation Fairs. Open houses and
transportation fairs provide an opportunity for the project
team to share information in a convenient setting. Staffed or
even unstaffed displays can be used to disseminate information
and solicit public reactions through self-administered
questionnaires.
Issue-Specific Meetings. Issue-specific meetings provide a
forum for discussing issues of particular concern, such as
project design, occupancy requirements, or violations and
enforcement.
Community Groups. A variety of community groups can be
addressed through special meetings geared toward the interests
of the group members.
Speaker bureaus, slide shows, and video presentations are all
avenues for simplifying participation in public forums and bringing
HOV issues before the public in a timely fashion. Brochures,
flyers, and newsletters can be used as handouts to reinforce the
messages conveyed at the meetings. Questionnaires distributed at
meetings provide a simple mechanism for building a database,
quantifying group concerns, and allowing less vocal participants to
express their interests.
3-28
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3-29
IMPLEMENTING 3
D. COMMUNITY RELATIONS
3. RIDESHARING AGENCIES
Most urban areas have public or non-profit agencies which
support ridesharing through ridematching services, marketing
campaigns, and employer outreach services. HOV marketing should be
coordinated with these agencies to avoid duplication of effort and
get more bang for the advertising buck.
Regionwide Programs. Most urban areas have public agencies or
non-profit organizations that promote carpooling through
ridematching services, roadside signs, media campaigns, and
employer outreach programs. Examples of such organizations are
RIDES in the San Francisco Bay Area and Commuter Transportation
Services (CTS) in Los Angeles. The Federal Highway Administration
report "Implementing Effective Travel Demand Management Measures"
(COMSIS, September 1993) points out that many of these programs
were created in response to the 1973 oil crisis.
Ridesharing organizations typically provide both ridematching
and marketing programs to promote carpooling and vanpooling. These
organizations maintain computerized database with the names of
potential carpoolers that are used for matching purposes.
Employees and commuters can call the agency to receive "instant"
matching over the phone or complete a carpool registration form and
be sent a matching list with the names of others having similar
commute patterns.
In addition to ridematching programs, ridesharing agencies
often undertake regionwide marketing campaigns featuring roadside
signs, brochures, media messages, print advertising, and employer
outreach programs. Examples of ridesharing materials from RIDES in
San Francisco and CTS in Los Angeles appear in the accompanying
exhibit.
Need for Coordination. HOV marketing efforts undertaken by
public transportation agencies should be coordinated with regional
ridesharing agencies to avoid duplication of effort, to take
advantage of their established distribution channels, and to get
more bang for the advertising buck. Such agencies are a natural
vehicle for regionwide maps showing the network of HOV facilities,
the location of park and ride lots, and other rideshare promotional
pieces.
Overall Effectiveness. An FHWA review of TDM measures
(COMSIS, 1993) provides this overall assessment of the
effectiveness of regionwide ridesharing agencies:
"Area-wide rideshare matching and promotion programs reduce
work trip VMT by 0 percent to 3 percent. They do so by
influencing a small, but significant proportion if ridesharers
into choosing carpooling. The bulk of ridesharers, however,
carpool with family and neighbors or as a result of employer-
sponsored programs and incentives."
In spite of their relatively low impact on regionwide
ridesharing rates, the FHWA report argues that ridesharing programs
deserve support because of their role in influencing employer-based
programs and as "...insurance policies against additional traffic
or as a program that is key to maintaining the existing proportion
of commuters using (ridesharing) alternatives."
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3-31
IMPLEMENTING 3
D. COMMUNITY RELATIONS
4. BUSINESS LIAISON
Ongoing liaison with the business community can allay fears
regarding a project's Impacts, generate valuable project support,
and provide a focus for effective employer-based carpool programs.
Business Contacts. Contact with the business community can be
made through chambers of commerce, ad-hoc committees of affected
businesses, industrial organizations, company transportation
coordinators, transportation management associations (TMAs),
ridesharing agencies, and other local channels. Where they exist,
TMAs represent a natural point of contact with the business
community. In most areas, ridesharing agencies have been
established to promote alternatives to SOV commuting and to
establish liaisons with employers. Employer-based programs that
both reinforce the aims of HOV lanes and help to fill those lanes
with carpoolers and transit users must be coordinated through these
ridesharing agencies. Examples of such programs include
preferential parking for HOVS, flexible work hours, vanpool
acquisition or lease programs, HOV parking subsidies, discounted
transit tickets, employer-based ride matching, and guaranteed rides
home for carpoolers.
Air quality requirements in major cities have forced employers
to take a closer look at ridesharing options and a more active role
in reducing automobile-generated air pollution. The New York State
DOT decided to make employer outreach efforts a key element of
their HOV marketing efforts on the Long Island Expressway. To this
end, they produced an introductory ten-minute video, informational
brochures (see Exhibit), posters, a commuter transportation
factbook for use by employee transportation coordinators (ETCs),
and other handouts. Initial contacts with employers were not
promising, with only one firm in ten expressing an interest in the
outreach activities. When the ridesharing promoters combined HOV
marketing with a discussion of employer goals under the Clean Air
Act, however, the success rate improved significantly (Bloch, et
al., 1994).
Employer-Based Carpool Programs. Research suggests that
employer-based TDM programs are often more effective than
regionwide ridesharing agencies or corridor-based marketing
activities in reducing drive-alone trips. The FHWA "Guidance
Manual for Implementing Effective Employer-Based Travel Demand
Management Programs" (COMSIS, November 1993) lists several reasons
for the relative success of employer-based programs.
"TDM strategies can be chosen to meet a relatively narrow set
of worksite characteristics, operational characteristics, and
commuters' demographic and travel characteristics. Information
dissemination can be targeted precisely to the employees most
likely to use the alternatives, and offered in a personalized
manner that eases commuters transition to an unfamiliar travel
mode. Further, employers can establish a "corporate culture"
that affirms employees' decision to use a commuting
alternative. These factors combine to create a favorable
atmosphere for trip reduction." (COMSIS, September 1993)
An inventory and review of TDM measures sponsored by FHWA
offers the following overall assessment of employer-based rideshare
programs:
"Employer-based rideshare matching and promotion is probably
more effective than areawide efforts alone, and employer
programs have been documented with reducing trips 20 percent
over prevailing conditions, but these results are largely due
to the financial incentives and parking management strategies
observed as part of the most effective employer program. When
evaluated alone, carpool promotion might only be expected to
reduce trips a few percentage points."
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3-33
IMPLEMENTING 3
D. COMMUNITY RELATIONS
5. PRIVATE INDUSTRY SUPPORT
Private Industry can be a valuable collaborator on public
education programs.
The public support of "good cause" efforts can earn private
corporations valuable recognition and improve their image in the
eyes of potential customers. Marketing personnel creating an HOV
campaign should analyze where any natural corporate tie-ins might
occur and then follow through with appropriate company personnel.
Existing HOV projects provide many examples of corporate tie-
ins:
- In Minneapolis, corporate sponsors helped produce a
calendar celebrating the opening of I-394 and the
benefits of ridesharing in return for advertising space
on the calendar.
- In Houston, an Acura dealer created a newspaper ad that
characterized their product as "The Shark in the Carpool
Lane." (See Section 2-D-6).
- In Seattle, owners of downtown office buildings allowed
their janitorial staffs to distribute post-it notes and
other information pieces advertising the I-5 HOV lanes.
- In Hampton Roads, Pizza Hut offered a "Double Up and Save
Special" in honor of the area's new HOV lanes. (See
Exhibit.)
As these examples suggest, many kinds of assistance
opportunities can be explored with potential corporate partners.
Assistance can take a variety of forms, from in-kind donations to
actual funding aid. The following illustrates a few more ways in
which private sources can be tapped for program assistance:
- "Piggyback" mailings of program information in routine
correspondence with customers and/or employees;
- Donations of billboard, or other advertising space for
the placement of program messages;
- Placement of public educational program radio or
television ads in the scheduled rotation of the
corporation's advertising;
- Inclusion of articles or program materials in house
organs, employee newsletters, and similar publications;
- Distribution of printed materials at points with high
public visibility (e.g., at showrooms, display counters,
or offices);
- Introduction of program personnel to board members,
stockholders, others who could aid the public education
effort; and
- Provision of employee/volunteers to distribute materials,
make phone calls, Promote events, and perform other
labor-intensive marketing activities.
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3-35
IMPLEMENTING 3
D. COMMUNITY RELATIONS
6. TELEPHONE HOTLINE
A telephone hotline is a useful means of supplying
information, sampling opinions, and providing a lightning rod for
public response during the weeks surrounding the opening of
controversial or fledgling HOV projects.
Telephone hotlines provide the public with immediate access to
information on HOV projects and a forum for praising or damning
those projects. While they can be effective during the early weeks
of a project, they have several drawbacks. They are labor-
intensive, and, consequently, costly to operate. They can be over-
run with non-project questions, and require staff and agency
dedication to be effective. Experience shows moreover, that
hotline use dwindles markedly after a few weeks, no matter how
successful or controversial the project may be. Hotline
experiences on a successful project, Minnesota I-394, and an
unsuccessful and highly controversial project, the Santa Monica
Diamond Lanes, are chronicled below.
Minnesota I-394. Marketing and planning personnel on
Minnesota I-394 felt that their telephone hotline was valuable only
during the early weeks of the project. Calls were handled through
a telephone response center called The Connection. This proved to
be expensive, however, and call volume soon dropped off, even
though the line was heavily publicized. As a result, the service
was discontinued.
Santa Monica Diamond Lanes: A telephone hotline set up in
cooperation with the Los Angeles Mayor's office served as a
lightning rod for public opinion during the early weeks of the
controversial Santa Monica Diamond Lane project. Between March 1
and April 2, 1976, the telephone center received and recorded 4,092
calls. Of these, 53% were negative, 13% were positive, 28% were
information requests, and 6% were mixed. The telephone center was
particularly active on the project's opening day, March 15, when
over 800 calls were received, 70% of which expressed negative
opinions of the project. By April 2, the volume of calls had
dropped below 50 per day, the telephone center was closed, and
incoming calls were referred to CALTRANS. A day-to-day history of
hotline center calls appears in the accompanying exhibits.
Telephone hotlines are only likely to be productive during the
early weeks of an HOV project, and they may not be necessary at all
in an area where the local population is familiar with-the HOV
concept. - If a hotline is established, telephone personnel should
be thoroughly briefed, Trained in advance to handle sample
complain, calls, and provided with a complete project information
kit as well as bus schedules, rideshare applications, and detailed
project maps. The nature and disposition of each call should be
logged, along with the caller's support (or lack of support) for
the project, the type of information requested, the caller's mode
of transportation, and any suggestions or comments.
3-36
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3-37
IMPLEMENTING 3
E. ONGOING MARKETING
1. OVERVIEW
The need for marketing does not end once HOV lanes have
been opened to the public, but rather lasts the life of the lanes.
Ford didn't stop marketing the Mustang when the first model
rolled off the assembly line; Disney didn't muzzle its publicists
as soon as Disneyland's doors were opened; and movie companies
don't withdraw their advertising campaigns as soon as a new release
has opened. Yet some HOV marketing campaigns have focused solely
on introducing a new set of preferential lanes and folded as soon
as the facility opened. As with automobiles, amusement parks, and
Hollywood hits, the need to market the HOV product lasts as long as
the product is before the public. Ongoing marketing efforts are
needed to introduce new commuters to HOV facilities, announce
changes in lane operations, update reports on project performance,
and answer questions and criticisms as they arise.
Reaching the Changing Commuter Population: The constant
turnover in computers is one compelling reason for continuing HOV
marketing efforts long after a facility has opened. Every day,
employers hire new workers, homes are sold, and new businesses
open. Although traffic counts on congested roadways may not vary
much from year to year, the identity of individual drivers is
constantly changing. New drivers entering the system may not have
been exposed to the marketing messages issued when an HOV facility
opened. They need to be informed of the workings of their
particular HOV lanes, introduced to the benefits of ridesharing,
and incorporated in ridesharing databases.
To make the constantly changing work force at the Norfolk
Naval base aware of the Hampton Roads HOV lanes, VDOT undertook a
program of ongoing education and promotion that included
instructional videos, a computerized rideshare matching program for
the base itself, and a weekly column in the base newspaper. (See
Appendix A-3.) Although few areas have the employee turnover
experienced by the Norfolk Naval Base, all jurisdictions experience
a steady influx of new commuters. A regular project newsletter
offers one means of reaching newcomers, as does the continued
distribution of brochures, posters, and other print materials with
a long shelf life. Radio spots featuring traffic reporters can be
updated as needed to reflect new project developments.
Announcing Operational Changes. Changes in lane operations
are likely to accompany changes in the commuter population. As
traffic grows, operating hours and occupancy requirements may
change, HOV lanes may be extended, and new preferential treatment
concepts may be introduced on metered ramps and arterial streets.
Marketing personnel must introduce all these changes; with the same
care and flair that accompanied the opening of their initial HOV
project.
Updating Progress Status Reports: Every HOV project needs to
be monitored regularly to provide a basis for evaluating the
project's impacts. Key information on vehicle volumes,
occupancies, and travel times should be monitored at least annually
(and preferably quarterly) before and after project implementation
(see Section 4-B). This ongoing monitoring process can provide a
continuing stream of material for marketers, who can translate data
on carpools and travel times into press releases and project status
reports. (See exhibit for an example of a news release covering
ongoing lane operations.)
Answering Questions and Criticisms: While some questions
regarding HOV lane operations can be anticipated in advance,
questions specific to each facility will arise once the lanes begin
to operate. Lane operations will al so bring a wide spectrum of
public criticism. Critics from the right of the spectrum, seeing
HOV lanes as half empty, will argue that public funds have been
misused creating a.facility that does not operate at peak
efficiency and whose use is denied to most of the taxpaying public.
Critics from the left of the spectrum, seeing HOV lanes as half
full, will argue that they are just another ruse to encourage
additional auto travel, increase urban sprawl" and worsen air
pollution. All such questions should be addressed fairly and
openly by project personnel.
3-38
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3-39
IMPLEMENTING 3
E. ONGOING MARKETING
2. COMMON QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
A list of common questions and answers published in a brochure
or print ad both educates the public and training agency personnel
to provide consistent responses to frequent Inquiries.
While both questions regarding HOV operations can be
anticipated in advance, questions specific to each facility will
arise once operations begin. A list of common questions and
answers is a good way of educating the public, training phone
personnel, and conveying information through brochures and print
advertisements. The accompanying exhibit shows a list of questions
and answers concerning the I-64 HOV lanes developed by VA DOT and
Tidewater Regional Transit. Other common questions and answers
from a variety of marketing pieces are listed below.
Q Why do we have an HOV lane?
A. We all know that traffic congestion is increasing in the
Nashville area. In addition, the federal government has
designated a five-county area of Middle Tennessee
(Davidson, Rutherford, Sumner, Williamson and Wilson) as
an air quality non-attainment area. That means the ozone
levels here exceed the requirements of the Clean Air Act.
Since ozone is largely generated by motor vehicles,
reducing the number of cars on our highways will help to
solve both the traffic and air quality problems.
(Tennessee DOT)
Q Why are some HOV lanes for two-person carpools, while
others require three persons?
A. WSDOT is trying to accommodate two-person carpools as
much as possible. We know it's easier to form a two-
person carpool than a three-person carpool. The carpool
definition of an HOV lane corridor is determined after
extensive traffic analysis. While most freeway HOV lanes
are for two-person carpools, there are some segments
where three-person carpools are required to meet safety
or performance standards. (Washington State DOT)
Q Do children count as passengers?
A. Yes, children count as passengers. Ridesharing should be
practiced by the whole family. It's never too early to
start teaching children about the importance of
carpooling and using transit. (Washington State DOT)
Q Some cars and trucks cannot carry more than one
passenger. Why aren't they allowed to use HOV lanes
designated for three or more persons?
A. The purpose of the HOV lanes is to give motorists
options. Commuters may choose to purchase any vehicle
they desire; they may choose to drive alone. If they
choose to carpool, vanpool or use transit, however, they
have the option of using the HOV lane if their vehicle is
carrying the appropriate number of passengers. Those
people owning two-seater vehicles have the option of
using the HOV lanes for two-person carpools; they also
can use transit or form a vanpool (Washington State DOT)
Q Then why do motorcycles get to use the HOV lanes?
A. Federal law allows single-person motorcycles to use HOV
lanes as long as safety is not negatively impacted. In
Washington state recorded levels of motorcycle usage is
relatively low. During the heaviest traffic volume months
of winter there are virtually no motorcycles on the road.
In the summer a few motorcycles are on the road, but they
are still an insignificant percentage (below 0.5 percent)
of the total traffic volume. (Washington State DOT)
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3-41
IMPLEMENTING 3
E. ONGOING MARKETING
3. MORE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
The list of questions and answers concerning HOV lanes is
nearly endless.
Q. Sometimes It appears that HOV lanes are empty. Why
aren't the HOV lanes opened to general traffic when it's
no longer rush hour?
A. When there is no congestion, HOV lanes are not needed.
When there is congestion, HOV lanes should be reserved
for carpools, vanpools and buses.
Rush hour is no longer an hour. Peak travel periods keep
increasing. At present, the peak commuting period is
approximately three hours in the morning and in the
evening. In some corridors traffic congestion is heavy on
the weekends and during off-peak commuting hours.
A commuter who chooses to carpool or use transit to get
to a concert or sporting event during noncommute hours
should be as justly rewarded as a commuter who opts to
share the ride to work.
Striking that delicate balance between too full or empty
is difficult to achieve 24 hours a day. Our goal is to
keep an even flow of vehicles cruising at 45 mph or more
in the HOV lanes whenever they're needed.
Since the HOV lanes can carry more people in fewer
vehicles, they are often perceived as being under
utilized when, in fact, they are working as they are
intended. (Washington State DOT)
Q How do meters - or signals - at freeway on-ramps help
traffic flow? Separate carpool lanes seem to be popping
up at more and more metered on-ramps. Why do we need
carpool lanes?
A. By regulating the flow of traffic entering the freeways
during peak traffic hours, the overall flow of traffic on
the freeways is smoother. This regulated flow means we
can accommodate more vehicles per hour on the freeways,
shorter commuting times, and a higher degree of safety.
Some metered ramps also feature a carpool lane. The
purpose of this special lane is to provide a faster
access for vehicles with two more passengers. This
encourages ridesharing, by providing a special benefit
for those people who carpool, vanpool, taxipool or ride
the bus. (CALTRANS)
Q. Who benefits from an HOV lane?
A. Everyone benefits from the HOV lane; it is the way of the
future. Of course, HOV lane users benefit the most by
enjoying a less congested lane, but other travelers
benefit from reduced traffic in the regular lanes. As
additional growth occurs and traffic increases, the HOV
lane will provide more significant time savings. And we
all benefit from reduced air pollution. (Tennessee DOT)
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3-43
E. ONGOING MARKETING
4. ANSWERING CRITICISM
Whether they are empty or full, HOV lanes are likely to
attract public criticism. Responsible criticism deserves
responsible answers.
Even the most successful HOV projects can expect to attract
some public criticism. Criticism can be irresponsible, as in the
case of the tacks and full-dress funeral procession introduced to
stall traffic in the Santa Monica Diamond Lanes. However, specific
HOV projects can also attract responsible criticism. While the
timing and forum for answering critics will vary from project to
project, and from critic to critic, responsible criticism deserves
responsible answers.
Criticism from the Right. HOV lane operations can attract a
wide spectrum of public criticisms. Critics from the right of the
spectrum, seeing HOV lanes as half empty, argue that public funds
have been misused to create a facility that does not operate at
peak efficiency and whose use is denied to most of the taxpaying
public. Such critics have also attacked HOV lanes on the grounds
that their environmental impact statement was inadequate (Santa
Monica), their funding illegal (Santa Clara), their violation rates
too high (Orlando), and their safety suspect (Santa Monica and
Orange County).
A common attack on HOV lanes is that their use is unfairly
denied to most of the taxpayers who paid to build them. This
attack was particularly prevalent in the case of the Dulles Toll
Road (See Appendix A-6), where non-carpoolers were denied access to
the carpool lane after paying a toll to use the access road itself.
One public letter to the U.S. Representative leading the fight
against HOV lanes on the toll road skewered this argument with the
observation that "By your logic, because my taxes pay for military
bases and salaries, I should be able to walk into any PX in the
country and buy groceries and household items cheaper than at
Giant. (I am also, by that logic, entitled to ride the Space
Shuttle for free.) "
In the plea for funds at the left, the "Commuters Against Diamond
Lanes" confuse CALTRANS claims that Santa Clara County's diamond
lanes carry 26% to 46% of total person movement with total vehicle
movement. HOV marketing personnel must continually emphasize the
difference between person throughput and vehicle throughput,
particularly in addressing the empty lane syndrome.
Marketing personnel should not be content merely to point out that
HOV lanes carry more people than adjacent lanes. That's what the
lanes are supposed to do. At two or three persons per vehicle, it's
not surprising to find more people in HOV lanes than adjacent
lanes. To be successful, HOV lanes must bring about an increase in
the number of carpools and transit riders using a corridor. It's
more difficult to demonstrate that such an increase has occurred
than to count heads in HOV lanes and mixed flow lanes, but a true
assessment of HOV effectiveness requires that evaluators address
the impact of the lanes on the formation of new carpools.
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.
3-45
Attacks on HOV lane safety should not be dismissed cavalierly.
While more research is needed to relate accidents to different HOV
lane configurations, it is clear that some configurations (i.e. the
Santa Monica Diamond Lanes) have led to an increase in accident
rates. On the other hand, common sense suggests that totally
separate HOV facilities such as the Shirley Highway and San Diego
I-15 can only improve safety by providing a segregated environment
for HOV travel and alleviating congestion on adjacent mixed-flow
lanes.
Criticism from the Left: In recent years, HOV lanes have been
subjected to criticism from the left of the spectrum as well.
Environmentalists, seeing the lanes as half full, argue that they
encourage additional automobile travel at the expense of transit
use, thereby increasing urban sprawl and air pollution. (See
Exhibit.) Many of these charges touch on complex issues requiring
considerable research. The impacts of HOV-induced carpools on air
pollution-are not well understood. Although the overall mileage
traveled by car is certainly reduced by HOV carpools, and cold
starts made by people driving to meet their carpools will add
disproportionately to auto exhaust emissions, as will the
additional congestion in mixed flow lanes. HOV critics also
contend that adding HOV lanes neither alleviates congestion nor
reduces auto trips, since "...the shift of some drivers from solo
to shared driving makes space on the roadway for others attracted
by a decline in congestion that had previously discouraged them
from driving (latent demand)." (Lehman, et al., 1993). While the
ability of latent demand to fill freeway space is well documented,
it is not clear whether this space is filled by people "previously
discouraged... from driving" or by drivers who previously traveled
at a different time or used a different (perhaps more circuitous)
route.
The charge that HOV lanes compete with transit systems for
ridesharers and reduce transit ridership also merits investigation.
However, surveys of drivers using existing HOV lanes suggest that
relatively few were transit riders before they became carpoolers.
A review of surveys on ten different carpool lanes throughout the
U.S. (Billheimer, Fehon, and Bell, 1990) showed that the percentage
of carpoolers who used to be transit riders ranged from 0.2% on
Orange County Route 55 to 25% on the San Francisco-Oakland Bay
Bridge. The average percentage of respondents on all ten projects
who used to be transit riders was 8%. The researchers felt that
"Since the survey questions were posed differently on different
projects, it is dangerous to attach too much significance to this
average value." However, the overwhelming weight of evidence
supports the observation that HOV lanes draw relatively few new
carpoolers from transit routes.
Defending Your Data: When critics attack an HOV project, they
almost inevitably attack the data developed by the project's
sponsors as well. The best defense against such attacks is to
develop a detailed evaluation plan and follow it. The next chapter
addresses the elements of such a plan (Section 4-B), as well as the
pitfalls that threaten statistical validity and public credibility
(Section 4-E). While a detailed evaluation plan will not stop
critics from attacking project data, it lowers the probability that
they will find embarrassing inconsistencies or errors in that data.
To discourage attacks on data credibility, a single outlet
should be established for data dissemination. Project information
should be released through the outlet on a schedule set by the
sponsoring agencies that allows data to be assimilated, checked for
consistency and accuracy, and thoroughly evaluated before it is
released. Project personnel should not attempt to hide or gloss
over negative findings (i.e. accidents, violations, or low HOV lane
use), but should report the findings along with positive results.
The use of an independent evaluator to assess HOV lane impacts can
sometimes help to establish the credibility of performance data and
project findings.
3-46
SECTION FOUR
MONITORING AND
EVALUATING THE PROJECT
4-1
MONITORING
AND
EVALUATING
A. OVERVIEW
Thorough evaluations of HOV projects are necessary to ensure
that the projects are providing the desired benefits, that the
benefits outweigh any undesirable side effects, and that the,
expenditure of public funds Is justified.
"One can never be certain whether a new social program
actually will be a cure or whether it will have undesirable
side effects. To start such a program without some plan for
evaluating it is just as inefficient as it would be to start
mass production of a radically new automobile without any road
tests."
N. E Miller, 1967
A radically new automobile design may fail at the marketplace
for a number of reasons. The styling may not appeal to the public,
the accompanying advertising campaign may be misdirected, or the
performance of the model may be inferior to that of similarly-
priced competitive models. A carefully conceived evaluation
process is needed at each stage of model design, development, and
marketing if potential shortcomings are to be detected and
corrected. Even the most sophisticated evaluations may be unable
to isolate and explain the precise causes of failure at the
marketplace. If the causes, of failure often elude the evaluator,
however, the fact of failure in such instances is generally
unambiguous. The new design fails to sell enough models to justify
additional investment and the model is discontinued.
In the case of government-sponsored transportation innovations
such as HOV lanes, judgments regarding success or failure can
themselves be ambiguous. In the absence of a relatively small body
of shareholders interested in profit-and-loss statements, the
stakeholders of HOV projects are members of the public at large.
Various segments of the public have different perceptions regarding
the success or failure of these projects. Non-carpooling drivers
view HOV lanes in a different light than carpoolers and transit
patrons. Transit operators sometimes see HOV lanes as ridesharing
competition; some environmentalists argue that additional freeway
lanes, preferential or not, simply lead to more pollution; and
traffic engineers can view half-empty HOV lanes as an underutilized
resource. Thus the task of evaluating an HOV project can be even
more complex than the task of evaluating a new automobile design.
The task of evaluating the marketing campaign accompanying an
HOV project is equally complex. Some HOV projects can succeed with
virtually no marketing, while the best marketing program in the
world can fail to save a poorly designed project. In any case, the
evaluation of an HOV marketing program must inevitably be tied to
the evaluation of the HOV project itself. This chapter addresses
the,need for monitoring and evaluating all aspects of HOV projects,
and provides guidelines for assessing the pact of projects and
their accompanying marketing programs.
The accompanying exhibit lists a variety of reasons for
evaluating HOV projects, condensed from the UMTA report "Suggested
Procedures for Evaluating the Effectiveness of Freeway HOV
Facilities" (Turnbull, et al., 1991). Evaluations are necessary to
ensure that the HOV facilities are providing the desired benefits,
that the benefits outweigh any undesirable side effects, and that
the expenditure of public funds on HOV lanes is justified. The
information collected as part of the evaluation process can guide
marketing efforts and help direct operating decisions regarding
enforcement, operating hours, occupancy requirements, and
access/egress points. The results of HOV lane evaluations can also
support future planning efforts within and outside the metropolitan
areas where the lanes are located. In spite of the obvious
arguments in favor of evaluating HOV projects and their
accompanying marketing efforts, evaluations conducted to date have
often suffered serious shortcomings. Problems with past
evaluations have included a lack of "before" data, unfocused
criteria, poor design, inadequate sampling, and limited scope. The
procedures proposed in this chapter are intended to support more
comprehensive evaluations of HOV projects, improve the focus and
quality of these evaluations and provide a level of standardization
that will allow meaningful inter-project comparisons.
4-2
MONITORING AND EVALUATING
A. OVERVIEW
EXHIBIT: REASONS FOR EVALUATING HOV PROJECTS
REASONS FOR EVALUATION
. ESTABLISH GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
- Quantify impacts
- Answer public inquiries
- Provide project data base
. GUIDE ONGOING MANAGEMENT DECISIONS
- Assist with operating changes
- Direct Marketing efforts
. SUPPORT FUTURE PLANNING EFFORTS
- Calibrate planning and simulation models
- Aid decision-making
. MEET FEDERAL OR STATE REQUIREMENTS
. BUILD COMMON BODY OF KNOWLEDGE
4-3
MONITORING AND EVALUATING 4
B. THE EVALUATION PLAN
1. ELEMENTS OF THE EVALUATION PLAN
The evaluation plan provides a structured statistical
framework for documenting findings regarding audience exposure,
public reaction, and campaign Impact and relating these findings to
project objectives.
"Evaluation has much in common with sex. Everyone is for it
(under certain conditions, of course). Everyone feels they
understand it (even though they wouldn't want to explain it).
Everyone thinks execution is only a matter of following natural
inclinations.
Philip B. Crosby, paraphrased by
Sara A. Levitan and Gregory K. Wurzburg
(Levitan and Wurzburg, 1979)
The first step in assessing the effectiveness of a public
information campaign is the development of an evaluation plan that
uses a structured statistical framework to relate program
objectives to measurement processes and analytic activities. A
detailed description of the contents of an evaluation plan may be
found in SYSTAN's Evaluation Handbook (Billheimer and Trexler,
1980).
The evaluation plan prescribes methods for measuring exposure,
reaction, and impacts and relating these measurements to project
objectives. The plan defines the measures of effectiveness, or
dependent variables, that best characterize audience exposure,
public reaction, HOV lane use, and project impacts; identifies the
independent variables that could be expected to affect the
project's objectives; specifies data collection procedures;
describes the populations to be monitored; prescribes statistical
tests and analytical procedures; schedules measurement and analytic
activities to coincide with campaign events; identifies potential
threats to the validity of evaluation findings; provides a basis
for managing the resources employed in the evaluation; and
stipulates procedures for testing hypotheses relating campaign
activities to observed attitudes and impacts. The accompanying
exhibit lists ten elements of a complete evaluation plan.
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B. THE EVALUATION PLAN
1. ELEMENTS OF THE EVALUATION PLAN
EXHIBIT: TEN ELEMENTS OF A COMPLETE EVALUATION PLAN
EVALUATION PLAN ELEMENTS
û 1. Impacts. A list of anticipated impacts, both good and
bad.
û 2. Objectives. A statement of well-defined objectives
specifying the intent of the project and defining the
scope of the evaluation.
û 3. Measures of Effectiveness: A definition of the measures
that best characterize the anticipated impacts. In the
language of statistics, these are, called the dependent
variables.
û 4. Independent Variables. A list of those factors that
mitigate or amplify the anticipated impacts (that is, the
independent variables).
û 5. Data Sources: A description of the data sources and the
measuring instruments to be used in documenting measures
of effectiveness.
û 6. Populations. A description of the populations on which
the measurements are taken (i.e., corridor drivers, HOV
lane users, transit riders, etc.)
û 7. Analysis Plan. A plan for the statistical computations
and tests to be performed on the data.
û 8. Schedule. A time schedule governing the measurements and
subsequent analysis.
û 9. Threats to Validity. A consideration of the various
factors that may limit the validity of the findings.
û 10. Presentation Plan. A plan for presenting the findings of
the evaluation in an appropriate, intelligent manner.
Source: Adapted from Billheimer & Trexler, 1980.
4-5
MONITORING AND EVALUATING
B. THE EVALUATION PLAN
2. THE EVALUATION TABLEAU
The Evaluation Tableau Is a tabular format relating data
elements and analytic procedures to the evaluation criteria
selected to measure project objectives and key Issues.
A complete Evaluation Plan will describe the relationships
between each of the ten factors listed on the preceding page. One
means of summarizing these relationships is a tabular array, or
tableau. The accompanying exhibit displays a sample tableau format
and lists some objectives and issues developed for SYSTAN's
evaluation of the Santa Monica Freeway Diamond Lane Demonstration
(Billheimer, et al., 1977). This tableau shows the relationships
between the anticipated impacts, or evaluation criteria, reflected
in the project objectives (Column 1); the hypotheses developed to
test these objectives (Column 2); dependent and independent
variables (Columns 3 and 4); sample populations (Column 5); data
sources and measuring instruments (Column 6); analytic comparisons
(Column 7); statistical tests (Column 8); plan of presentation
(Column 9); and a further explanation of the implied causal
relationship between the demonstration and impact under
consideration (Column 10). A schedule showing the timephasing of
measurements and analytic activities would be prepared separately,
as would a treatment of potential threats to validity.
Uses of the Tableau. Although the use of tableaus provides no
magical assurance that the evaluation will be trouble-free,
tableaus help to provide a systematic approach for developing a
comprehensive, complete, and efficient plan in which:
. Each objective is assured a thorough assessment;
. Each measurement is linked to a particular objective or
research question; and
. Data collection plans are complete and non-redundant.
They also help to organize the diverse elements in an easily
understandable format, thereby supporting comparisons between sites
or alternative approaches.
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4-7
MONITORING AND EVALUATING 4
B. THE EVALUATION PLAN
3. SETTING EVALUATION OBJECTIVES
Project goals and objectives should be stipulated clearly and
concisely In well-defined, measurable statements. The list of
evaluation objectives should be comprehensive, and should
anticipate undesirable side effects as well as advertised project
goals.
The first step in developing an evaluation plan for any HOV
project is to define the goals and objectives of the project
itself. Goals and objectives should be stated clearly and
concisely, so that each represents a well-defined, measurable
statement. A list of typical objectives called from a study of a
variety of HOV lane evaluations (Turnbull, et al., 1991) appears on
the facing page. The study recommends that measurable objective
statements be written in such away as to include "...the desired
end result, the action that will be taken to achieve this result,
and the time frame within which the result will occur."
In any HOV lane assessment, the most significant impacts to be
evaluated are generally those linked to the advertised local
objectives of the project. However, measurements and analyses
should be undertaken in all areas in which significant impacts
might occur, whether or not they are related to the project's
advertised objectives. In the evaluation of the Santa Monica
Freeway Diamond Lanes (Billheimer, et al., 1977), for example, the
stated objectives were to reduce energy consumption, improve air
quality, increase freeway capacity, and improve transit travel
time, reliability, and productivity. Nowhere in this list of
objectives was a recognition of the project's most disturbing
impact, a significant increase in freeway accident levels. The
evaluation plan (Billheimer and Lave, 1975) identified this
potential side effect as a key concern, and the evaluation itself
subsequently investigated the causes of the observed accident
increase in some detail. For the benefit of other jurisdictions
attempting to decide whether to implement similar service
improvements, there is a need to understand the risks of
undesirable. side effects as well as the rewards of attaining
positive transportation objectives. Evaluation plans need to
address the full range of objectives, issues and side-effects
likely to result from a demonstration. One way of accomplishing
this is to recognize all potential side effects in the stated
projected objectives. Thus the list on the facing page recognizes
the possibility of accidents explicitly by stating that "The HOV
facility should be safe and should not unduly impact the safety of
the freeway general-purpose mainlanes."
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MONITORING AND EVALUATING 4
B. THE EVALUATION PLAN
3. SETTING E. VALUATION OBJECTIVES
EXHIBIT: TYPICAL HOV PROJECT OBJECTIVES
PROJECT OBJECTIVES
. The HOV facility should Improve the of a congested freeway
corridor to move more people by Increasing the number of
persons per vehicle.
. The HOV facility should increase the operating efficiency of
bus service In the freeway corridor.
. The HOV facility should provide travel time savings and a more
reliable trip time to HOVs utilizing the HOV facility.
. The HOV facility should have favorable impacts on air quality
and energy consumption.
. The HOV facility should increase the per lane efficiency of
the total freeway facility.
. The HOV facility should not unduly impact the operation of the
freeway mainlanes.
. The HOV facility should be safe and should not unduly impact
the safety of the freeway general purpose mainlanes.
. The HOV facility should have public support
. The HOV facility should be a cost-effective transportation
Improvement.
Source: Turnbull, et al., 1991.
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MONITORING AND EVALUATING
B. THE EVALUATION PLAN
4. DEFINING MEASURES OF EFFECTIVENESS
Measures of effectiveness assigned to project objectives
should be meaningful, operationally credible, measurable,
analytically tractable, easily Interpreted, and relevant for
decisionmaking.
Once objectives have been clearly defined, the evaluator must
identify those measures of effectiveness that best characterize
each objective. A list of measures of effectiveness commonly used
in assessing HOV project objectives appears in the facing table. A
similar list reflecting the stipulated objectives of a variety of
HOV marketing programs appears below.
.
As is evident from the accompanying lists, there is a certain
degree of flexibility in the choice of objectives and evaluation
measures. There are usually several variables that can measure
ar5-impact directly, and there may be several additional proxy
indicators that are indirect measures of that same impact.
Measures may be quantitative or qualitative, objective or
subjective. A distinction can also be drawn between actual and
perceived impact measures. Changes in travel time might be
measured directly through physical observation (an actual measure)
or by questioning riders regarding their perceptions of changes (a
perceived measure). A comparison of actual and perceived measures
can often illuminate otherwise inexplicable behavior by carpoolers
and non-carpoolers.
To avoid setting meaningless evaluation tasks, certain general
principals should be observed in defining measures of
effectiveness. Raisbeck (1979) offered the following principles:
Measures of effectiveness (MOEs) should be meaningful, in that they
are clearly related to study objectives, key issues or significant
side-effects. Measures should also be sensitive to factors
affected by the HOV lanes. Raisbeck refers to this quality as
operational credibility: MOEs should be measurable; that is, there
must be some way of assigning a value to the criteria for purposes
of evaluation. The measures themselves must be analytically
tractable and finally, they should be easily interpreted, should
not require reams of explanation, and should be relevant to the
decisionmaking process.
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4-11
MONITORING AND EVALUATING
B. THE EVALUATION PLAN
5. COMPARISON STRATEGIES
Three comparison strategies are commonly used in Identifying
and measuring HOV project Impacts: before/after comparisons,
control route comparisons, and modeling comparisons.
HOV project impacts typically manifest themselves as changes
in measures of effectiveness. These changes may be detected by
different types of comparison. Three general comparison strategies
are common. comparisons at different points in time; comparisons
between different freeways, regions, or populations; and
comparisons between real and hypothesized systems. These three
common comparison strategies are shown in schematic form in the
facing exhibit.
A. Before/After Approach
The first approach compares system states before and after the
introduction of HOV lanes or some feature of the HOV project.
Almost all HOV lane evaluations have relied heavily upon the
approach. The methodological difficulty with this approach is that
changes in measures of effectiveness may be caused by many factors,
and it is often difficult to distinguish changes induced by a new
HOV lane from those caused by other factors. For example,
carpooling may be affected by gasoline prices, parking policy, and
a number of other factors besides HOV lanes. Moreover, when
simultaneous changes are introduced, as where a marketing campaign
is timed to coincide with an HOV lane opening, the before/after
approach often does not allow the evaluator to isolate causes.
B. Control Freeway Approach
The above difficulties suggest a second comparison approach
which relates the study freeway to similar freeway which is not
exposed to a particular HOV treatment. The second freeway is
analogous to the traditional experimental control group. It is
assumed that the two freeways are subject to the same forces except
for the HOV treatment, and that comparing both freeways will reveal
the effects of the treatment. The methodological difficulty with
this approach is that no two freeways are absolutely comparable.
However, the approach is useful in monitoring the effects of
exogenous effects such as fuel shortages and regionwide trends in
carpooling. Measurements on the control freeway can then be used
to separate HOV project impacts from the effects of fuel shortages
or regionwide trends.
C. Modeling Approach
The third comparative approach reflects the assumption that if
the HOV project had not been introduced, some other innovation
(i.e., an additional mixed-flow lane) would have been. Since it is
seldom possible to introduce several major innovations in distinct
time frames, this comparison requires a model of the freeway
"after" the hypothetical introduction of those alternatives that
are not actually implemented. Because the modeling of freeways and
mode choice is not an exact science, this approach can hardly be
said to be free of methodological difficulties. However, modeling
is sometimes the only way of estimating the long-term effects of an
innovation. Although Before/After studies can capture short-term
effects such as mode choice, long-term changes such as residential
location are often obscured by exogenous influences.
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4-13
MONITORING AND EVALUATING
B. THE EVALUATION PLAN
6. THE EVALUATION SCHEDULE
The Evaluation Plan should contain a detailed schedule of
evaluation events to guide data collection activities and display
the implications of proposed project changes.
It is important that a schedule of evaluation activities be
developed and coordinated with the project implementation and
operation schedule. The evaluation schedule should show the
anticipated timing of measurements, analysis, and reporting
relative to the timing of project activities. A sample evaluation
schedule is shown in the accompanying exhibit.
A working version of the evaluation schedule should be
completed prior to implementation to ensure that data will be
collected in a timely fashion and that no perishable pre-project
data will be lost. By carefully scheduling observations around the
introduction of separate innovations (e.g., the HOV lane opening
and a subsequent park-and-ride lot installation), it is often
possible to document the separate impacts of these innovations.
Furthermore, the development of a comprehensive schedule of
measurement activities enables the evaluator to make maximum use of
regularly-scheduled observations and accommodate seasonal
fluctuations by collecting data during comparable time periods.
"Before" Data Timing: It is essential that representative
data be collected prior to the implementation of the HOV project.
It is virtually impossible to recreate "before" data once the
project has been initiated, and it is difficult to document the
impact of an HOV project in the absence of adequate "before" data.
While this reminder of the need for "before" data may seem to
overstate the obvious, the impacts of more than one HOV project
remain uncertain because no data were assembled in advance of the
project.
Ideally, jurisdictions should begin assembling traffic counts
on a corridor as soon as it is identified for future HOV treatment.
This will provide historical perspective and ensure that data
collection activities will not be delayed until construction has
begun, when counts will reflect an a typical situation. One count
a year for five years before construction starts is better than
five counts after the bulldozers have begun. As the FHWA
guidelines on HOV lane evaluation (Turnbull, et al., 1991) observe,
"a single data point is unlikely to accurately reflect before
conditions."
"After" -Data Timing. To ensure comparability, it is
important that the same procedures, techniques, and definitions be
used in collecting data before and after the project
implementation, and in the ongoing monitoring process. Detailed
"after" measurements should be delayed until a steady state
response has been reached. It will usually take at least two
months for both users and operators to become accustomed to a new
project. During this start-up period, certain key variables (i.e.
carpool volumes, traffic speeds) should be monitored frequently.
When these variables indicate a steady state has been reached,
detailed sampling of a wider range of variables may take place.
Detailed readings of system status should typically be taken again
after six months, and thereafter at least annually. Continuing
observation over the long term is important, since many of the
significant impacts of HOV projects occur two to four years after
implementation.
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4-15
MONITORING AND EVALUATING 4
C. MONITORING THE PROJECT
1. OVERVIEW
The range of measurements needed to evaluate an HOV project -
can Include travel time runs, vehicle and occupancy-counts,
accident statistics, enforcement data, transit performance
measures, user and non-user surveys, and air quality measurements.
The HOV project itself needs to be monitored on a regular
basis to provide timely information on project progress and
assemble data on the wide range of potential project impacts. in
the past, several HOV lane evaluations have focused on narrow
objectives (i.e., counting the vehicles in the carpool lane).
However, the range of potential impacts for any HOV project is too
broad to be covered by simple vehicle counts. The wide range of
potential impacts can require an equally wide range of
measurements. Examples of the range of measurements appear below
and in the accompanying exhibit.
Travel Time Runs: Travel time runs should be conducted in the
HOV lanes and adjacent mixed-flow lanes on a regular basis to
document the time savings afforded HOV lane users.
Vehicle and Occupancy Counts: Vehicle and occupancy counts
should be made on HOV lanes, mixed flow lanes, parallel
routes, and designated control routes.
Accident Statistics. Accident statistics should be assembled
in HOV lanes; adjacent mixed-flow lanes, and on control
freeways before and during project operations.
Enforcement Data. Routine and special assignments of law
enforcement personnel to HOV lane enforcement should be
documented, along with the numbers of citations issued to HOV
lane violators.
Transit Performance. Any improvement in on-time performance
for transit vehicles using the HOV lane should be documented,
along with ongoing changes in transit ridership.
User and Non-User Surveys. Surveys of carpoolers, vanpoolers,
bus riders, and noncarpoolers on mixed-flow lanes should be
conducted to record perceptions, assess attitudes, document
awareness of marketing approaches, and obtain information on
mode choice.
Air Quality. On large-scale projects, measurements of total
CO, HC, and NOx emissions may be warranted.
The nature and extent of the measurements needed in monitoring
and evaluating a specific HOV project will vary depending on
project design, objectives, and setting. Where Section B of this
chapter has presented guidelines for developing evaluation plans
reflecting a project's design and objectives, this section provides
more general information on data collection and HOV project
monitoring.
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4-17
MONITORING AND EVALUATING
C. MONITORING THE PROJECT
2. DATA COLLECTION FREQUENCY
Key Information on vehicle volumes, occupancy, and travel
times should be monitored quarterly, but no less than annually
before and after project Implementation.
The frequency of data collection activities will vary somewhat
with the type of HOV facility, the maturity of the system,
available resources, and changes or anticipated changes in the
operating environment. Regardless of the type and maturity of the
facility the FHWA evaluation guidelines (Turnbull, et al., 1991)
suggest a desired level and a minimum level for basic data
collection activities. These levels are summarized in the
accompanying exhibit.
Type of Facility. Short contraflow lanes or metered flow
bypasses that operate only during peak periods may require lower
levels of effort than extensive exclusive or concurrent flow lanes.
Maturity of Facility. The FHWA Evaluation Guidelines
(Turnbull, et al., 1991) suggest that "New facilities should be
evaluated more frequently than those that have reached a stable
operating level. This is not to say that older facilities should
not continue to be monitored, but the frequency of these activities
may be slightly less. Data from current projects suggest that
usage levels on successful HOV facilities will continue to increase
for several years. Thus, it is important that data collection and
monitoring activities be organized to accurately monitor these
changes."
Monitoring Changes. The frequency of data collection
activities should be increased if changes have occurred or are
anticipated in the operating environment. By increasing the
frequency of measurements before and after the introduction of
changes, affecting such features as hours of operation, occupancy
requirements, enforcement levels, transit schedules, marketing
efforts, support activities, or competing facilities, it may be
possible to isolate the impact of these changes on HOV facility
use.
Before/After Frequency. The importance of adequate
"before/after" data has been noted in discussing the Evaluation
Schedule (Section 4-B-6). The need to assemble enough before data
to establish trends in traffic density, travel times, and occupancy
counts on parallel and control routes, as well as before
construction begins cannot be overemphasized. Historical
information on accident rates on the facility itself should also be
assembled.
Once the HOV facility is opened, vehicle and occupancy counts
and travel time runs should be conducted on the HOV lanes, adjacent
mixed flow lanes, and alternate routes at least once during the
first 3 to 6 months of operations, and, at a minimum again at the
12 month mark. Vehicle and occupancy counts should also be
assembled on the control freeway. An ongoing data collection
effort should be established on the facility, adjacent lanes,
parallel routes, and the control freeway. Accident and violation
data should be examined on the same schedule. A survey of users
and non-users should be conducted at some point during the first
year and, at a minimum, at intervals of two to three years
thereafter.
Seasons of the Year. Choice of appropriate seasons of the
year and days of the week will depend on the likely sensitivity of
the measurement process to each of these time units. Data
collection activities should be scheduled during those seasons
which are most representative of normal conditions. Generally,
this will mean the fall and the spring, when weather conditions are
mild and schools are in session. Measures taken during the summer
vacation period are rarely comparable with measures taken during
other seasons of the year.
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.
Days of the Week. Data collection activities should be
conducted on days that represent normal weekday conditions. Thus
vehicle occupancy counts, travel time runs, and surveys are
generally scheduled for Tuesday through Thursday. Mondays and
Fridays should be avoided, since travel on these days tends to be
less representative. The FHWA evaluation guidelines suggest the
following additional procedures for assembling day-to-day HOV data:
"When possible, the data collection activities should be
conducted on the same days for the HOV facility and freeway lanes.
For example, if possible, travel time runs should be made on the
same day for the HOV facility and the freeway lanes. When k is
beneficial to have information for both the morning and afternoon
peak-periods, it max be appropriate in some instances to conduct
more intensive efforts during the morning peak-period.
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MONITORING AND EVALUATING 4
C. MONITORING THE PROJECT
3. PRESENTING FINDINGS
Evaluation findings should be presented in a professional,
accurate, and understandable manner in different levels of detail
structured to meet the needs of a wide audience.
Ongoing Reporting. Project managers should establish a focal
point for information dissemination. Project findings should be
released to the press and public through a single outlet, on a
schedule set by the participating agencies that allows data to be
assimilated and evaluated before it is released.
Presentation Content: Evaluation findings should be presented
in a professional, accurate, and understandable manner. The FHWA
guide for evaluating HOV facilities (Turnbull, et al., 1991) offers
the following presentation advice:
"A key to presenting the results of the evaluation and ongoing
monitoring program is to focus on the major measures of
effectiveness. These should be presented in a clear, concise, and
readable manner, that allows individuals to easily identify the
purpose of the data and the changes that have occurred. In
addition, the narrative accompanying these tables and graphics
should be concise and easily understood. A good data collection and
evaluation effort can be wasted if the results are presented in a
sloppy and unprofessional way."
Presentation Format: The results of data collection and
ongoing monitoring activities can be presented in a variety of
ways. The most common approach entails tabular and graphic
comparisons of before/after data. The accompanying exhibit shows
the use of tabular and graphic approaches in generating the results
of an HOV lane evaluation (The Katy Transitway and the Santa Monica
Diamond Lanes, respectively).
Levels of Detail: Evaluation reports will be read by a wide
variety of audiences, each with their own interests and
backgrounds. Transportation professionals and technical staff will
look for different types of information than special interest
groups who in turn will have a different focus than decisionmakers
and the general public. The presentation, levels of detail, and
analysis should be appropriate for the audience being addressed.
For example, transportation professionals are likely to be
interested in detailed technical information, including the
assumptions and approximations that went into the analysis.
Decisionmakers, on the other hand, may be more interested in
summaries of general trends and utilization levels.
To satisfy the diverse audiences for project findings, it is
best to structure evaluation reports in three general sections: an
executive summary of key findings, a technical report supporting
these findings, and appendices containing detailed information of
interest to researchers and technical staff personnel.
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MONITORING AND EVALUATING 4
D. MONITORING THE CAMPAIGN
1. OVERVIEW
Three levels of campaign evaluation address three successively
more difficult questions of campaign effectiveness:
1. EXPOSURE: WHO was reached by the campaign?
2. REACTION: DID the public remember the message?
3. IMPACT: WHAT was the effect on project
objectives (i.e., ridesharing)?
Commercial advertisers spend large sums of money not only in
developing advertising campaigns, but also in pretesting and
monitoring the effectiveness of these campaigns. The designers of
public information campaigns designed to market HOV lanes must be
equally dedicated in assessing the effectiveness of their messages.
Typically, public service campaigns can be evaluated at three
different levels:
1. EXPOSURE: WHO was reached by the campaign?
This first level of evaluation documents promotional
approaches, tabulates the size of the audience reached by
each approach and gauges the success of the campaign in
reaching members of the target population.
2. REACTION: DID the public understand and remember the
message?
This second level of evaluation investigates public
reaction to the campaign. Typically, group discussions
and surveys might be used to determine how many people
remembered the campaign, liked it, understood its
message, and followed its suggestions.
3. IMPACT: WHAT was the campaign's effect on the project
objectives?
This third level of evaluation documents the effect of
the campaign on project objectives. It is at this point
that the evaluation of the campaign directly intersects
the evaluation of the HOV project itself, as changing
travel patterns are documented and the influence of the
marketing campaign on these changes is evaluated.
Each successive level of evaluation is progressively more
difficult and more complex than the preceding level, and each level
depends on the successful accomplishment of the earlier steps.
Without some knowledge of whether the public has heard and
understood a campaign message, it makes little sense to try to
describe changes in HOV carpooling levels to that message.
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MONITORING AND EVALUATING 4
D. MONITORING THE CAMPAIGN
2. MEASURING EXPOSURE
Audience exposure to campaign messages can be estimated by
logging the air time devoted to TV and radio spots, documenting the
circulation of newspapers and magazines containing campaign
materials, and counting the number of handouts, newsletters, or
brochures put into public hands.
In measuring campaign exposure, the evaluator attempts to
tabulate the size of the audience reached by each promotional
approach and gauge the success of the campaign in reaching members
of the target population. This is typically done by using station
logs and arbitron ratings to estimate the size of the TV or radio
audience, circulation figures to estimate the number of readers
exposed to print ads, and simple counts of distributed materials to
document the number of handouts, newsletters, or brochures put into
the hands of the public.
Electronic Media. In measuring audience exposure to radio and
TV spots, the amount of air time devoted to each spot should be
documented, so that the size of various audience segments can be
estimated using Arbitron or Nielsen ratings. In the case of paid
commercial advertising, radio, and TV stations typically provide
motorized statements documenting the date and time that each-spot
aired. Estimating the size of the audience for public service
announcements can be difficult, since it involves requesting a
search of daily computed logs by the public service coordinators
responsible for making the decision to air the commercial. If a
station's logs are computerized, the search simply requires an
electronic scanning of the computer file. Otherwise, documentation
can entail an arduous manual search of daily logs. Since the
public information personnel responsible for creating a campaign
can be understandably reluctant to request additional work from the
station coordinators responsible for deciding which of many
competing public service spots to aid, evaluators can be faced with
the choice of obtaining gross estimates of playing time ("About how
many times a week do you think the spot aired?") or searching the
daily logs themselves.
Print Articles and Advertising. In the case of articles and
advertising appearing in newspapers and magazines, it is possible
to multiply the number of individual appearances by appropriate
circulation figures to obtain a rough upper bound on the number of
impressions made through the printed page. Even though a single
newspaper or magazine may be passed from hand to hand, the
circulation figures represent an upper limit on the viewing
population, since only a fraction of the total number of readers
can be expected to turn to the appropriate page, and a still
smaller fraction will actually read the article or advertisement.
The number of editorial columns, or column inches of space given to
a topic provides another measure of newspaper exposure. This
source is particularly useful in comparing exposure rates in
different areas or over different periods of time. The
accompanying exhibit traces the editorial response to the Santa
Monica Diamond Lanes over the life of the project.
Billboards. In the case of outdoor advertising, the average
daily traffic (ADT) passing a billboard location provides a basis
for computing an upper bound on the number of viewer impressions
made through this venue. ADT figures must be cut in half to
reflect unidirectional flow and multiplied by an appropriate factor
(say 1.15) to reflect auto occupancy. It the billboard is not
illuminated, the estimate must be reduced still further to
eliminate nighttime drivers. As in the case of newspapers, this
estimating procedure can only provide a crude upper bound, since
many drivers passing a billboard may be oblivious to its presence.
Posters, Brochures, and Bumperstickers. In the case of
posters, brochures, and bumperstickers, it is virtually impossible
to develop exposure estimates. Awareness of these channels can be
documented if audience response is assessed through personal
interviews. At a minimum, the number of posters, pamphlets, and
bumperstickers that have been produced and distributed should be
documented in lieu of exposure measures.
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MONITORING AND EVALUATING
D. MONITORING THE CAMPAIGN
3. COST VS EXPOSURE
Campaign costs should be Itemized by media channels so that
the relative cost-effectiveness of reaching the target audience
through each channel can be computed.
In evaluating a marketing campaign for a public facility such
as an HOV project, it is often helpful to compare the cost of
producing and distributing media materials with the size of the
audience reached by those materials. Costs should be itemized by
media channel, so that the cost of reaching a viewer through a 30-
second television commercial can be compared with the cost of
reaching readers through a newspaper advertisement.
Three different categories of costs are likely to be incurred in
implementing an HOV marketing campaign:
Production Costs. Production costs include all the expenses
incurred in creating and producing TV spots, radio
commercials, advertising copy, billboard art, bumperstickers,
and other media materials. These costs can vary over a wide
spectrum. For example, newspaper advertising copy can be
produced relatively cheaply, while TV production costs range
from $2,000 to $200,000 for a 30-second commercial.
Personnel Costs. Personnel costs can include the person-hours
consumed in negotiating with radio and TV personnel, hand-
carrying public service announcements to station coordinators,
and handing out flyers on freeway on-ramps.
Distribution Costs. The cost of buying media time, leasing
billboard locations, purchasing newspaper space, and making
other time and space purchases must be included in the media
budget.
The accompanying exhibit summarizes estimates of the cost per
driver reached by each major campaign element employed in a "Sober
Graduation" campaign undertaken by the California Highway Patrol
(CHP). While these estimates are somewhat crude and do not reflect
the response of the public to the individual elements (some
channels may be more effective than others in making an impression
and-eliciting a response), they do provide a broad ranking of the
cost-effectiveness of individual campaign elements. This ranking
can be revealing. The accompanying exhibit shows, for instance,
that the cost per driver reached by 35 mm movie spots distributed
to movie theaters was over ten times more expensive than the
corresponding cost of reaching targeted drivers through TV public
service announcements. Faced with this knowledge, the CHP
abandoned 35 mm movie spots in subsequent DUI campaigns.
4-26
D. MONITORING THE CAMPAIGN
3. COST VS EXPOSURE
EXHIBIT: ESTIMATED COST-PER-DRIVER REACHED BY CAMPAIGN ELEMENTS OF
THE CHP "SOBER GRADUATION" CAMPAIGN
COST PER DRIVER CAMPAIGN ELEMENT
Under 0.1› Newspaper releases
Radio announcement&
Bumperstickers
Posters
0.1› to 1.0› Billboards
30-second TV spots
Bus cards
1.0› to $1.00 35 mm movie spots
Source: Billheimer, 1986.
4-27
MONITORING AND EVALUATING 4
D. MONITORING THE CAMPAIGN
4. MEASURING REACTION
Public reaction to a campaign can best be measured by asking
members of the public, through focus groups or broader surveys,
whether they were aware of the campaign, understood its messages,
and followed its suggestions.
Measuring public reaction to a publicity campaign or to an HOV
project is more difficult than measuring audience exposure.
Typically, focus group discussions or surveys are needed to
determine how many people in the target audience remembered the
campaign, liked it, understood its messages, and followed its
suggestions. These same discussions and surveys can be used to
document the reaction of the public to the HOV project itself.
FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS
Just as focus group discussions can be used in shaping a
fledgling campaign (See Section 2-A3), they can also be used to
explore the reactions of members of the target audience to a
completed campaign or a campaign in progress. The small group
setting provides an opportunity to determine not only which members
of the group were exposed to specific campaign materials, but to
explore individual reactions to the materials in detail and to
determine whether those materials changed personal perceptions or
commute choices.
Through focus group discussions, the Virginia DOT determined
that one of their campaign creations to publicize Route I-64, the
Lone Rider, a villanous character designed to discourage single
occupant commuting, generated little recognition and less
credibility among area commuters. The accompanying exhibit depicts
the cartoon image of the Lone Rider. Typical ad copy reads: "DON't
BE A LONE RIDER! SHARE A RIDE TO WORK AND ENJOY THE BENEFITS!" This
concept attempted to make "bad guys" out of the majority of the
drivers in the Hampton Roads area using the image of the Lone
Ranger (who was, after all, a "good guy.") Leaving aside the bad-
guy/good-guy confusion, the concept failed for a more basic reason:
it was impossible to establish the identity of the character in the
public's mind using the limited air time and print exposure
available to donated public service messages.
TELEPHONE OR MAIL-BACK SURVEYS
Telephone or mail-back surveys enable the evaluator to obtain
a statistically valid and consistent sampling of public awareness
among key population groups (i.e. carpoolers and non-carpoolers)
over a period of time. (See Section 2-A-4 and 2-A-5).
Unaided Recall. Telephone interviews can test whether a
campaign has made a large enough impression on respondents so that
they recall it without direct prompting from the interviewer. By
beginning with a general question (i.e., "Have you seen or heard
any advertising regarding commute alternatives?") and following
with more detailed probing ("What do you remember reading?"), it is
possible to test respondents' recollection of a specific slogan or
campaign theme without quoting the slogan or theme directly.
Slogans volunteered by respondents in response to this probing are
classified as "unaided recall" and reflect a strong response to
campaign imagery.
Aided Recall. If respondents are asked directly whether they
have heard a specific slogan, seen a particular advertisement, or
read a project newsletter, their responses fall under the heading
of "aided recall." Whereas "unaided recall" can generally be tested
only through personal interviews or telephone surveys, "aided
recall" can be measured through mail-back surveys as well. A user
assessment survey conducted for the Minnesota Department of
Transportation (Strgar-Roscoe-Fausch, 1993) determined that 61% of
the households in the I-394 corridor had seen a copy of the project
newsletter, and 50% of the households thought the information was
useful.
4-28
.
Mode Shifts: Follow-up surveys can be used to document any
changes in commuting habits which have occurred among members of
the target population since an HOV project was introduced or a
particular ridesharing campaign was implemented.
Project Opinions: Many project evaluators have used follow-up
surveys to sampling public opinion regarding the project itself.
These questions can be framed in different ways. Drivers in the
Santa Monica Freeway Corridor were asked whether they would rate
the Santa Monica Diamond Lanes as Greatly Beneficial (9%);
Beneficial (10%); Of No Benefit (19%); or Harmful (67%). Drivers
in the I-394 Corridor in Minneapolis were asked to rate their level
of satisfaction with the completed project as: Very Satisfied
(36%); Somewhat Satisfied (39%); or Not Satisfied (25%). Seattle
drivers are being asked to indicate the extent to which they agree
or disagree with the statement "HOV lanes are a good idea." Drivers
in various transitway corridors in Houston have been asked at
yearly intervals whether they feel the transitway in their corridor
"...is, at present, sufficiently utilized to justify the project,"
and whether that transitway "...is a good transportation
improvement. By 1989, the percentage of freeway motorists who felt
the transitway adjoining their freeway was a good idea ranged from
63% on the Gulf Transitway to 71% on the Northwest Transitway.
In view of the sometimes polarizing nature of HOV lanes on
public opinion, it is best to give respondents a range of choices
when asking their opinion of a particular project. That is, it is
best to request more opinion shadings than a simple "Thumbs up" or
"Thumbs down." Once a question format for electing public opinion
is chosen, moreover, it should remain unchanged in successive
surveys so that valid comparisons can be made over time.
4-29
MONITORING AND EVALUATING
E. EVALUATION PITFALLS
1. LACK OF HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
The most common pitfall plaguing past HOV lane evaluations has
been a lack of adequate "before" data.
"Summing up, it is clear the future holds great opportunities.
It also holds pitfalls. The trick will be to avoid the pitfalls,
seize the opportunities, and get back home by six o'clock.
Woody Allen
Nearly all evaluations of HOV lanes and accompanying publicity
campaigns rely heavily on "before/after" comparisons. The most
common pitfall plaguing these evaluations has been the lack of
adequate "before" data. For example, the failure to record traffic
volumes on Route 55 in Orange County prior to the installation of
HOV lanes has made it difficult to answer claims that the lanes
caused ap increase in accidents. It is virtually impossible to
recreate "before" data once the project has been initiated, and it
is difficult to document the impact of an HOV project in the
absence of adequate "before" data.
As has been noted in discussing the scheduling of evaluation
activities (Section 4.B.3), jurisdictions should begin assembling
traffic counts on a corridor as soon as R is identified for future
HOV treatment. This will provide historical perspective and ensure
that data collection activities will not be delayed until
construction has begun, when counts will reflect an atypical
situation. One count a year for five years before construction
starts is better than five counts after the bulldozers have begun.
As the FHWA guidelines on HOV lane evaluation (Turnbull, et al.,
1991) observe, "a single data point is unlikely to accurately
reflect before conditions."
The difficulty of relying on a single data point to document
"before" conditions is illustrated in the accompanying exhibit,
which presents two Views of the impacts of a speeding crackdown in
Connecticut during the mid-50's. The exhibit shows the results of
the crackdown as interpreted (a) by the Governor responsible for
the crackdown and (b) by an uninvolved statistician. The Governor
chose to use a single "before" data point (see Exhibit A) to argue
that the speeding crackdown was successful, while the statistician
took a broader view based on five years of pre-crackdown accident
data.
The statistician, Donald Campbell (Campbell, 1969) tested the
statistical foundations for the Governor's statement that "with the
saving of 40 lives in 1956, a reduction of 23% from the 1.55 motor
vehicle death toll, we can say that the program is definitely
worthwhile." Campbell tested a number of plausible rival hypotheses
for the observed decrease in traffic fatalities, exploring such
potential threats to validity as regression, exogenous events, and
the inherent statistical instability of accident data. In
addressing the possibility of statistical instability, Campbell had
this to say:
"Seemingly implicit in the public. pronouncement was the
assumption that all of the change from 1955 to 1956 was due to the
crackdown. There was no recognition of the fact that all time-
series are unstable even when no treatments are being applied. The
degree of this normal instability is the crucial issue, and one of
the main advantages of the extended series (Exhibit B) is that it
samples, this instability. The great pretreatment instability now
makes the treatment effect look relatively trivial The 1955-56
shift is less than the gains of both 1954-55 and 1952-53. It is
the largest drop in the series, but it exceeds the drops of 1951-
52, 1953-54, and 1957-58 by trivial amounts. Thus the unexplained
instabilities of the series are such as to make the 1955-56 drop
understandable as more of the same. On the other hand, it is
noteworthy that after the crackdown there are no year-to-year
gains, and in this respect the character of the time series seems
definitely to have changed." Campbell, 1969
4-30
.
4-31
MONITORING AND EVALUATING 4
E. EVALUATION PITFALLS
2. THREATS TO VALIDITY
Internal validity refers to the degree to which a campaign's
impacts can be measured and Interpreted correctly within the area
of dominant Influence, while external validity refers to the
ability to transfer findings regarding these Impacts to other
areas.
Any real-world evaluation will be marked by a number of
exogenous events that threaten the statistical validity of the
findings, the transferability of results, and the sanity of the
evaluator. Many events may threaten the internal statistical
validity of an evaluation of HOV lanes and accompanying programs.
Examples include gasoline price hikes that encourage carpooling,
concurrent advertising campaigns, ramp closings, construction
activity, and changes in the local economy. In addition, certain
factors may affect the transferability of findings from one city to
another. Public support for HOV lanes may differ from city to
city, and the uniqueness of a geographic setting may contribute to
the success or failure of a project. Finally, certain events--such
as funding cutbacks or administrative policy changes--that pose no
threat to statistical validity may still threaten the orderly
completion of the evaluation.
In the uncontrolled environment of an urban setting, many
factors threaten the ability of the analyst to record events
accurately or to draw correct statistical inferences from recorded
data. These threats to validity can be conceived as falling into
two groups: those that threaten Internal validity and those that
threaten external validity. Internal validity refers to the
correct interpretation of the local impacts of the innovation
within the test sites. (Was the Katy Freeway effective in inducing
carpools in West Houston?) External validity addresses the
relevance to correctly-interpreted local impacts in predicting the
impacts of similar projects in other metropolitan areas. (ff ft
worked in Houston, will it work in Dallas?) Lack of internal
validity typically implies lack of external validity, except by
coincidence. The converse is not necessarily true.
Threats to validity are not all statistical in nature. Many
can be traced to the process of measurement and its effect on the
environment or on those variables being sampled. Other threats
reflect the difficulty of isolating the impacts of a single
campaign from the many uncontrollable factors that, are constantly
changing in a dynamic urban setting.
One purpose of the Evaluation Plan (see Section 4-B) is to
minimize and mitigate threats to validity. In some cases, these
threats can be defused by scheduling innovations and measurements
so they do not interfere with each other, by avoiding external
interference, or by carefully defining control groups. Although
the mitigation of threats to validity is a paramount goal, the
ability to counter these threats effectively in a real setting (as
opposed to a laboratory) is constrained by many factors. In cases
in which threats cannot be countered effectively, they should at
least be described comprehensively so that evaluation findings are
accompanied by a full statement of the factors which may limit the
validity of the results.
4-32
.
4-33
MONITORING AND EVALUATING 4
E. EVALUATION PITFALLS
3. INTERNAL THREATS TO VALIDITY
Major pitfalls threatening the internal validity of an HOV lane
evaluation include erogenous events, maturation, measurement,
interventions, time Interference, instrumentation errors, faulty
population selection, statistical regression, and statistical
instability.
The accompanying exhibit lists eight potential threats to the
internal validity of an HOV lane evaluation, along with a summary
of possible countermeasures. These threats are discussed below.
1. Exogeneous Factors include all external events, such as
gasoline shortages, concurrent advertising campaigns,
changing economic conditions, or unseasonal weather,
which are likely to affect the levels of such key impact
variables as carpooling tendencies, public awareness, and
accident rates. The careful definition of control groups
offers one of the most effective means for countering
this threat.
2. Maturation refers to the effects of time, independent of
specific events, and includes existing trends in
population growth and socioeconomic factors (i.e., the
maturing of the baby-boom population and an overall
decline in accidents per vehicle mile) which can affect
observed impact levels. The best way to cope with this
threat to validity is to use time-series analysis to
detect existing trends and test the significance of
subsequent observations.
3. Measurement (Helsenberg's Principle. The measurement
process itself may affect performance and response. For
example, the sight of observers counting occupancy rates
may cause violators to bail out of HOV lanes.
Measurements should generally be unpublicized and
unobtrusive.
4. Time Interference occurs when two or more concurrently
scheduled activities obscure the individual effects of
each. For example, HOV marketing campaigns are typically
timed to coincide with the opening of HOV lanes, so that
it is difficult to separate campaign impacts from the
impacts of the lanes themselves. The effects of time
interference can sometimes be countered by rescheduling
activities to minimize interference or coordinating
measurements to document separate and combined impacts.
Since it is rarely desirable to decouple an HOV marketing
campaign from the opening of HOV lanes, rescheduling is
not usually an option in evaluating HOV campaigns.
However, it is possible to use surveys to document the
extent of campaign awareness among different groups of
drivers.
5. Instrumentation refers to errors introduced by the
measurement instrument or process, independent of any
change in the phenomenon measured. These errors can
sometimes be minimized by documenting the tolerance of
both human and mechanical data collectors, and by spot-
checking data for consistency and credibility. Before
the Santa Monica Diamond Lanes opened, one roadside
observer responsible for counting vehicle occupants at a
particular location recorded all carpools and vanpools as
having exactly three occupants, even if there were more
passengers. This Three-fingered counter" was replaced
after lanes opened by an observer who recorded occupancy
rates more accurately. As a result, "before/after"
comparisons showed a hefty increase in occupancy rates at
one location. The fact that these increases were out-of-
line with experience at other count stations led to a re-
examination of field data, the identification of the
three fingered counter, and the voiding of his inaccurate
counts.
6. Population Selection threats arise when sampled
populations are not those specified in the evaluation
plan, when populations vary in non-random ways between
measurements, or when errors in logic are made in
assigning a characteristic to a group.
4-34
.
7. Statistical Regression: Erroneous "before" measurements
and regression to the mean can distort the relative
impacts attributed to public information campaigns. In
choosing targets for safety programs, law enforcement
agencies often focus on locations where accidents have
risen dramatically in the past year. This selection
process almost guarantees that the level of accidents at
the target location will drop in subsequent years,
whether or not an accident-reduction program has been
introduced. Ideally, at least five year's worth of data
should be used in defining "before" conditions, and time-
series analysis should be used to evaluate results.
8. Instability refers to the ubiquitous possibility that
observed changes are due to random statistical
variations, rather than to the process being evaluated.
The threat of instability can be countered by careful
time-series analysis and tests of statistical
significance.
4-35
MONITORING AND EVALUATING 4
E. EVALUATION PITFALLS
4. EXTERNAL THREATS TO VALIDITY
Major pitfalls threatening the external validity of an
evaluation Include the uniqueness of the project locale and any
experimental conditions surrounding project Implementation.
All threats to internal validity also threaten external
validity. In addition, however, two types of factors specifically
affect the transferability of evaluation results from one locale to
another. The first is the uniqueness of any project location, and
the second stems from the experimental conditions and/or
controversy surrounding some HOV projects.
UNIQUENESS OF LOCALE
In assessing and communicating evaluation results, evaluators
should ask "Does the locale have characteristics so unlike other
regions that impacts measured there cannot be expected in other
cities?" Local geographic, institutional, economic, social,
transportation, and demographic factors must be studied to
determine whether they strongly influence the project's outcome.
Several aspects of the Los Angeles area and the Santa Monica
Freeway itself served to amplify and modify the effects of the ill-
fated Santa Monica Diamond Lanes. The official federal evaluation
of the project (Billheimer, et al., 1977) cited five uniquely local
concerns for the benefit of decisionmakers attempting to translate
the Santa Monica Freeway experience in terms of their own
geographic areas.
1. Los Angeles' geographic sprawl and lack of a CBD
orientation. Because of the scattering of trip origins
and destinations throughout Los Angeles, relatively few
users of the Santa Monica Freeway were destined for the
CBD. The lack of a focal point for trip destinations
made carpool formation relatively difficult, decreased
the pool of potential riders of the CBD-directed bus
service, and increased the possibility of merging
accidents.
2. Los Angeles' automobile dependence. As a result of the
geographic sprawl of the City, Los Angeles residents
generally travel further and are more dependent on their
automobiles than residents of other, more compact, U.S.
cities.
3. The high incomes of area residents. Some of the most
influential persons in the city lived in the project
area, resented any restrictions on auto use, and had the
political influence to guarantee a hearing for that
resentment.
4. Fragmentation of government authority. Los Angeles'
fragmentation of public power and authority meant that a
large number of government agencies and elected officials
had some purview over the Diamond Lane project. Each
decision maker had his own concept of project goals, and
the degree of involvement and commitment to the Diamond
Lanes varied greatly from agency to agency.
5. Ramp metering. In operating during the demonstration, the
ramp meters on the Santa Monica Freeway helped to
alleviate the freeway congestion caused by lane
dedication. Prior to the project, moreover, the meters
alone had so improved freeway traffic speeds that the
Diamond Lanes suffered somewhat by comparison.
All locations are unique, and the best way to cope with the
threat to external validity imposed by this uniqueness is to use a
standard statistical framework to document the characteristics of
the demonstration locale so that other jurisdictions can easily
compare their own situations with that site. The accompanying
exhibit suggests potential categories of site classification data.
4-36
.
EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS
Some HOV projects have been publicly labeled as experimental
demonstrations, while others have been threatened with closure
throughout their existence. The San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge
HOV Lanes were labeled as a "Priority Lane Experiment," while
politicians threatened to close both the Santa Monica Diamond Lanes
and the HOV lanes on the Dulles Access road from opening day
onward.
In the case of experimental HOV projects, long measurement
processes, special media attention, and frequent service and
operational changes, and the novelty of the demonstration itself
may all affect user response to the project. It is generally best
to avoid publicizing the experimental nature of a project and to
discourage excessive management tinkering as time progresses.
Controversy and constant threats of closure will obviously
affect public reaction to an HOV project. As noted in the Santa
Monica Diamond Lane report (Billheimer, et al., 1977), "A project
whose life is consistently being threatened and that is treated as
tentative by participants cannot be expected to generate as many
long-term commitments to carpooling and bus riding as a project
that is guaranteed to be around for a specified period before being
junked, modified, or accorded permanent status.
4-37
MONITORING AND EVALUATING 4
E. EVALUATION PITFALLS
5. THREATS TO CREDIBILITY
When controversy arises, the credibility of HOV lane sponsors
can come under attack. These attacks may be countered by following
a pre-determined evaluation plan, reviewing all data and data
collection procedures, releasing both positive and negative
findings through a single focal point, and employing an Independent
evaluator.
Many different groups have an interest in the performance of
HOV lanes, and provide many different viewpoints regarding the
success or failure of individual projects. Environmental
activists, drivealone commuters, transit supporters, police
officers, transportation department employees, carpoolers, clean
air regulators, and politicians all have different viewpoints
regarding the desirability and effectiveness of HOV lanes. This
mix of conflicting viewpoints can make HOV lanes the center of
public controversies and call into question the credibility of the
sponsoring agencies. On controversial projects such as the Dulles
Access Road and the Santa Monica Diamond Lanes, project opponents
publicly accused the sponsoring agencies of dishonesty in reporting
project findings. In addition to creating ill feeling and
confusion among area residents, such public assaults can demoralize
transportation, agency employees and even cause internal
dissension.
In the case of the Dulles Access Road, VDOT was accused of
knee-jerk thinking, inflating HOV lane counts, and unfeeling
arrogance in dealing with tax-paying commuters. In the case of the
Santa Monica Diamond Lanes,
"One of the most serious controversies emerging during
the demonstration turned on the question of data credibility.
The sponsoring agencies were collecting data as the project
progressed, and CALTRANS became the source for disseminating
project statistics. As "CALTRANS"project" came under attack,
so did the data ft issued. Other agencies began drawing
different conclusions from the CALTRANS data, and some local
groups--including the press itself--began collecting and
issuing their own data. The freeform use of different numbers
and different reference bases during the demonstration made ft
difficult for the public to know who or what to believe, and
led the press to question the credibility of project
participants. The credibility of project foes was rarely
questioned by the media. " (Billheimer, et al., 1977)
Under the best of circumstances, there will always be some
degree of ambiguity associated with traffic data. When HOV
projects find themselves in the center of controversy, statistics
can be assembled under the worst of circumstances, hastily
collected under rigid deadlines, hurriedly processed in the glare
of publicity, and interpreted by agencies and groups with a vested
interest in defending or attacking the project. While there is no
sure way to keep an agency's credibility from being called into
question several steps can be taken to bolster that credibility if
it comes under attack.
- Develop a detailed evaluation plan and follow it. A structured
statistical plan for measuring project impacts should be
developed in advance. (See Section 4-B.) The plan should
define what is to be measured, specify what comparisons are to
be made, establish the statistical procedures to be used to
validate the comparisons, and set a schedule for releasing
results. While the evaluation plan may not keep project
critics from questioning the credibility of the sponsoring
agency, the plan should demonstrate the agency's good faith,
guide data collection and analysis activities along defensible
paths, and help to avoid embarrassing public pitfalls.
- Include all affected public-agencies and officials In the
planning process: The importance of constituency building in
advance of the project cannot be overemphasized. If bridges
are built in advance between agencies, groups, and officials
with an interest in the project, the project is likely to
accommodate a broader range of interests and the number of
potential critics will be lowered.
4-38
.
- Provide a lightning rod for public response. On controversial
projects, a central telephone center should be established
shortly in advance of implementation to supply information,
sample public opinion, record suggestions, and provide an
outlet for public indignation.
- Check and double-check all data before lt.is released. Traffic
data collection is subject to a number of errors, from simple
human miscalculations to complex computer failures. All data
should be checked for accuracy and consistency and reviewed to
make sure apparent increases or decreases in key measures of
effectiveness such as carpool formation are statistically
valid and don't reflect seasonal quirks or changes in counting
personnel.
4-39
- Establish a -focal- point for Information dissemination.
Project information should be distributed to the press through
a single outlet, on a schedule set by the participating
agencies that allows data to be assimilated and evaluated
before it is released.
- Review data collection procedures to make-sure they are
Unbiased. In some cases, historical data collection procedures
can cause traffic data to appear biased. For example,
CALTRANS personnel have historically been instructed to
abandon speed runs in the face of incident-caused congestion.
As a result, speed runs reflect only incident-free days,
making travel times appear faster than they actually are and
raising questions of credibility with day-to-day commuters.
This practice can also bias before/after comparisons if the
number of freeway incidents changes-between the before and
after periods.
- Publicize both positive and negative project Impacts. Attempts
to improve a project's appearance and increase its acceptance
by publicizing only positive statistics (i.e. carpool
formation) while ignoring negative impacts (i.e. added
congestion in mixed flow lanes) can only help to call an
agency's credibility into question. Public agencies must be
prepared to address both the positive and negative impacts of
HOV lanes. In the case of controversial projects, negative
impacts will be aired by project foes, who are likely to
overstate them in the absence of official measurements.
- Hire an Independent evaluator. Questions of credibility can
sometimes be put to rest by having an independent evaluator to
assess project impacts. It a project is seen in advance as
being controversial, the evaluator should be brought on board
early enough to assist with the evaluation plan and monitor
"before" data collection activities.
4-40
APPENDICES A
APPENDIX A
CASE STUDIES A
A-1
APPENDIX A
CASE STUDIES
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This appendix contains marketing case studies of seven HOV
projects:
Appendix Project
Al Minneapolis I-394
A2 Hampton Roads Route 44
A3 Hampton Roads I-64
A4 The Santa Monica Diamond Lanes
A5 The San Francisco/Oakland Bay Bridge
A6 The Dulles Toll Road
A7 Seattle I-5 South
These case studies were chosen to represent a range of
successful and unsuccessful HOV projects. The studies provide an
overview of the project itself, and focus on the marketing campaign
accompanying the project, including such topics as market research,
campaign strategy, marketing materials, constituency building,
media relations, community reaction, ongoing monitoring and
evaluation, and the perceived reasons for the success or failure of
the project.
Dr. John Billheimer of SYSTAN prepared case studies Al through
A6, while Heidi Stamm of Pacific Rim Resources prepared study A7,
dealing with Seattle I-5 South HOV lanes. The authors received
generous assistance from a number of individuals affiliated with
the various projects. Special acknowledgement is due to Al Pint
and Judith Rockvam of MN DOT and Charleen Zimmer of Strgar Roscoe-
Fausch, Inc. for their assistance with Minneapolis I-394; to Lynda
South Webster and Frank Dunn of VDOT for their help with both the
Hampton Roads projects; to Ron Klusza and Bob Goodell of CALTRANS
District 7 for dredging up their memories of the Santa Monica
Diamond Lanes; to M. Scott MacCalden Jr. of JHK Associates for
unearthing the early technical reports on the San Francisco/Oakland
Bay Bridge; to Mary Ann Reynolds and Carole Valentine of VDOT for
reliving their expedience with the Dulles Toll Road; and to Jerry
Ayres, Melissa Loomis, and Rob Fellows of WA DOT for sharing their
insights into Washington State HOV policies and programs.
A-2
APPENDIX A
CASE STUDIES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Al MINNEAPOLIS I-394
1.1 Project Description A-1-1
1.2 Marketing A-1-1
1.3 Reasons for Success A-1-11
A2 HAMPTON ROADS ROUTE 44
2.1 Project Description A-2-1
2.2 Marketing A-2-3
A3 HAMPTON ROADS ROUTE 44 AND I-64 (PHASE 11)
3.1 Project Description A-3-1
3.2 Marketing A-3-2
A4 THE SANTA MONICA DIAMOND LANES
4.1 Project Description A-4-1
4.2 Marketing A-4-4
A5 THE SAN FRANCISCO/OAKLAND BAY BRIDGE
5.1 Project Description A-5-1
5.2 Marketing A-5-4
A6 THE DULLES TOLL ROAD
6.1 Project Description A-6-1
6.2 Marketing A-6-3
6.3 Marketing Lessons Learned A-6-10
A7 SEATTLE'S I-5 SOUTH HOV PROJECT
7.1 Project Description A-7-1
7.2 Marketing A-7-3
A-3
A-1 CASE STUDY: MINNEAPOLIS - I-394
1.1 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
1.1.1 Location
I-394, the last segment of the interstate system to be
constructed in the Twin Cities Metropolitan Area, extends eleven
miles from downtown Minneapolis on the east to the city of Wayzata
on the west (see Exhibit 1.1). The design consists of two mixed-
flow lanes and one concurrent4low HOV lane in each direction along
the eight mile segment west of Highway 100, and two mixed flow
lanes in each direction with two barrier separated, reversible HOV
lanes along the three-mile median east of Highway 100. The lanes
are supported by a variety of elements, including two major transit
stations, seven park-and-ride lots, ramp metering, HOV bypass lanes
at selected ramps, and three new directly accessible parking
garages in downtown Minneapolis, which offer discounted rates to
carpoolers.
1.1.2 Scheduling
I-394 was built along the alignment of U.S. Highway 12, and
construction was staged in such a manner that the highway carded
traffic while I-394 was being built. To help manage traffic during
the construction of I-394 and introduce the concept of HOV lanes to
the public, an interim HOV lane was implemented. The interim HOV
lane, or "Sane Lane," as it was originally called, opened for
carpools and buses in November 1985. The Sane Lane initially
opened in two barrier separated segments, and expanded to assist
with traffic management as construction on I-394 proceeded. A
concise description of the construction schedule, along with a
thorough history of the decision process leading to the design and
construction of the $420 million I-394 project, can be found in the
FHWA publication "HOV Project Case Studies" (Turnbull, 1990). At
present, all roadwork is complete, the lanes are open to traffic,
and all garages and transit stations are operating. Extensive
final landscaping is scheduled for 1994.
1.1.3 Utilization
Once operational, the I-394 HOV lanes offered an average time
savings of from five to seven minutes to buses and two-person
carpoolers traveling the length of the project. Express Lane usage
has grown markedly since the project was completed. In November
1986, one year after the temporary Sane Lane was opened to relieve
congestion during construction and -introduce the concept of HOV
lanes to Minneapolis commuters, 1,650 people traveled in the
Express Lane during the peak morning hour. The number of Express
Lane travelers remained fairly constant until 1991, when major new
segments of I-394 began to open. Since that time, Express Lane
usage has nearly tripled. (See Exhibit 1.2.) By the spring of 1993,
4,606 people, or 48% of the eastbound commuters during the peak
hour, used the Express Lane each morning.
1.2 MARKETING
1.2.1 Overview
The Express Lanes on I-394 have been accompanied by a
dedicated and extensive marketing program which has grown and
evolved as the lanes proceeded from construction to completion.
The marketing program included a thorough and ongoing market
research
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component; a unified marketing plan that guided the production and
dissemination of a wide variety of promotional materials; attention
to constituency building among public agencies and the maintenance
of good community relations; and, finally a process of monitoring
and evaluation which enabled MN/DOT to report project impacts in an
accurate and timely fashion.
Objectives: Marketing objectives evolved gradually from
introducing the HOV concept as construction began to filling the
HOV lanes when construction was completed. Throughout the project,
marketing personnel concentrated on "increasing carpooling and bus
riding, establishing two-way communication with target audiences,
and maintaining positive media relations." (Draft Phase III Report,
1993). According to MN/DOT,
"Strategies regularly focused on communicating the benefits of
I-394, utilizing both paid and non-paid media to reach target
audiences and tying all communication vehicles together with a
similar look and a Highway 12/I-394 logo. As construction
neared completion, both the objectives and messages began to
focus more on selling the total I-394 transportation system
concept and the big picture messages about how this system
fits into the transportation environment both today and into
the future." (Draft Phase III Report, 1993)
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Budget: The marketing program was supported by an in-house
marketing liaison, a contract with a public relations/advertising
agency, and a dedicated budget that averaged approximately $400,000
per year. During construction, 90% of these marketing dollars came
from federal interstate funding, with the remaining 10% coming from
the state, and the budget was generally split evenly between
advertising and public relations efforts.
Key Concerns: MN/DOT staff and their consultants identified
the following key marketing considerations at the start of the
project
- it is essential to develop a cooperative relationship
with the police and judicial communities;
- it is critical to avoid the empty lane syndrome;
- continuous, positive media relations must be maintained;
- a wide variety of media channels should be used to
communicate with target audiences;
- it is important to know the audience--key incentives vary
by audience.
1.2.2 Market Research
The I-394 marketing program has benefited from ongoing
market research which has used telephone surveys, focus groups, and
employer discussion groups to assess marketing potential, identify
target audiences, test promising marketing approaches, and measure
public reactions to the Express Lanes.
Well before construction began, a Rideshare Market Potential
Study was undertaken by the Metropolitan Transit Commission (MTC),
in cooperation with MN/DOT and the Metropolitan Council.
(Metropolitan Transit Commission, 1984). The analysis examined
rideshare programs in other areas, surveyed current corridor users,
and evaluated potential strategies. The following four strategies
were recommended in the study:
- Encouraging the development of self-created carpools and
vanpools.
- Establishment of a corridor employer and community
program to encourage ridesharing.
- Creation of study area commuter club to promote
ridesharing.
- Interim HOV lanes/treatments on State Highwayl2 before I-
394 construction.
Turnbull (1990) notes that "While all of these recommendations
were utilized in the development of other aspects of the I-394
plan, the recommendation on the use of an interim HOV lane had the
biggest impact."
Additional research at the start of construction indicated that:
- Most respondents were dissatisfied with the existing
Highway 12; there was strong support for the new I-394;
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- 10% of the respondents said they would consider switching
to carpooling or bus riding when the new I-394 was
complete;
- time and money were the two greatest incentives to
carpool or ride the bus; and
- brochure/maps, drivetime radio reports and television
news were the preferred means of obtaining pertinent
information about I-394.
Follow-up focus groups and telephone surveys were conducted
during the implementation period and after construction was
complete. A survey of 400 residents of western Minneapolis suburbs
contacted by phone roughly three months after the completion of
construction showed that 75% of those surveyed were satisfied with
I-394. (36% said they were very satisfied, while 39% were somewhat
satisfied.)
1.2.3 Campaign Strategy
Because I-394 represented the first introduction of HOV lanes
in the Minneapolis/St. Paul area, an extensive marketing plan was
developed. The initial focus of the plan was to let-people know
how to use the HOV lane, parking garages, and transit and rideshare
services. The marketing team strove to create realistic
expectations for the project, to encourage commuters to use the HOV
lanes, and to gain the support of decision makers, the media, and
the public at large.
Early Promotional Activities: To accomplish these objectives,
an aggressive public information campaign was undertaken prior to
the opening of the HOV lane and during the first year of
operations. During the six weeks immediately preceding the opening
of the initial segment and immediately after the Grand Opening, the
following activities were undertaken:
- Direct Mail. A direct mail package was sent to 65,000
households in the I-395 corridor. This package included
a "Commuters Guide" brochure, project maps, the first
issue of the I-394 Expressions' newsletter, and bus
schedules.
- Newsletter: A quarterly (later semi-annual) newsletter
"I-394 Expressions" was mailed to corridor households.
- Construction Bulletins: Construction bulletins were
distributed door-to-door in local areas directly impacted
by a specific construction activity.
- Media Relations. Positive media relations were promoted
through weekly press releases, a press kit, a press tour
of the HOV lane prior to the Grand Opening, and
appearances on public affairs programs.
- Advertising Channels: Traditional advertising approaches
used a radio spot, a billboard along the right-of-way,
newspaper ads, bus-side advertising, and a project
poster.
- Special Events: A grand opening ceremony was held for
the HOV lane and carpool parking lot. Special events
also commemorated ground breakings and grand openings of
major interchanges and the three parking garages.
- Telephone Hotline. A HELP-394 Information Center hotline
was established.
Ongoing Promotions. Several new approaches were added and
others were modified as the project progressed and research
identified new targets.
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- Construction Briefs: In response to business owners'
feedback, a bi-weekly (later monthly) construction update
was developed and mailed to corridor businesses who
wished to have more frequent communication.
Name Change: The name "Sane Lane," which focus groups
initially selected to connote the benefit of avoiding
construction hassles, was changed in 1990, when new research
found the term "Express Lane" to better reflect the Lane's
purpose. While all outgoing communications reflect this
change, the public and media often continue to use the term
"Sane Lane," largely because of the effective radio jingle
used in the initial marketing program.
Target Shift: Females under 35 were originally identified as
the primary target group for project advertising. Within a
year, this was changed to males aged 18-45, and subsequently
broadened to all adults in this age range. More recent 1992
research suggested that females in the 18 to 35 age category
with incomes under $35,000 per year had the greatest
propensity to carpool or ride the bus. With this finding,
marketing was redirected toward the original target group.
1.2.4 Marketing Materials
Marketing materials on the I-394 project were unified through
the use of a single logo showing a construction worker replacing
the old Highway 12 sign with a new I-394 standard (see Exhibit
1.3).
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Marketing personnel noted that they had designed their
advertising materials to look "professional, but not too flashy."
They feared that "flashy" materials might lead the public and some
legislators to question whether MN/DOT was spending the taxpayer's
money wisely. In reviewing the materials and approaches used to
promote I-394, project personnel had clear ideas regarding those
elements which had been most successful.
Effective Materials. Marketing approaches judged to be most
effective were:,
- The I-394 Newsletter which regularly showed a high
awareness lead;
- Telemarketing which convinced 58% of those contacted to
sign up for the carpool matching program;
- Traffic Report Spots. When traffic reporters read
promotional material as part of their regular programs,
the message not only reached drivers during their
commute, but also improved the reporters' view of the
lanes.
- Single Spokesperson. The identification of a single
project spokesperson, the I-394 Corridor Manager, enabled
MN/DOT to orchestrate the formal articulating of key
messages and ensured that media representatives could get
consistently credible answers to questions as they arose.
Discontinued Approaches. Other approaches proved to be less
effective. Some discontinued approaches are listed below.
- Telephone Hotline. The telephone hotline was felt to be
valuable during the early weeks of the project. Calls
were handled through a telephone response center called
The Connection. This proved to be expensive, however,
and call volume soon dropped off, even though the line
was heavily publicized. As a result, the service was
discontinued.
- Outdoor Advertising. Billboards were used effectively in
generating early project awareness. They were
discontinued when focus groups suggested that outdoor
advertising was "...not a preferred medium for obtaining
pertinent information." (Draft Phase III Report, 1993)
- The "Big Ride Guide." A "Big Ride Guide" foldout
containing information on potential rideshare partners
was judged to be ineffective and discontinued when it was
suggested that public information regarding individual's
addresses and work hours might be useful to burglars.
- Carpool Campaign Slogan. A carpooling campaign entitled
"Gang Up Downtown" was canceled days after it began in
response to political sensitivity regarding gang activity
in downtown Minneapolis.
1.2.5 Constituency Building
At the outset of the projects, MN/DOT took care to involve all
affected agencies in the planning and decisionmaking of I-394. A
Corridor Management team was formed that included representatives
from the following agencies:
- MN/DOT
- Metropolitan Council
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- Regional Transit Board (RTB)
- Metropolitan Transit Commission (MTC)
- Minnesota Rideshare
- Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
- Minnesota State Patrol
- City of Minneapolis
- Hennepin County
A block diagram showing the relationship of the Corridor
Management Team to the participating agencies appears in Exhibit
1.4. This organizational structure provided top-down open support
from within MN/DOT and promoted strong interagency cooperation with
the project. The Phase I Case Study prepared in October 1987 notes
that "...the public commitment of the Commissioner and the major
decision-making role of the Corridor Management Team were very
important in achieving this support." The report also cites the
importance of designating a single Corridor Manager with
responsibility for the interim HOV lane as well as the construction
of I-394 as a key factor in the project's success. Because
responsibility was concentrated at within a single, identified
individual, MN/DOT was able to respond immediately to any problems
or criticisms.
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To cement relations with the legislature, judicial system, and
the public at large, informational meetings were held prior to the
opening of the HOV lane with legislators, elected local officials,
prosecutors and hearing officers, law enforcement officers, and
various community groups.
Individuals involved with the process reported that the early
and continuing involvement of the different agencies and
jurisdictions was a critical factor in the development of the plan
and the success of I-394 Express Lanes. The FHWA case study
(Turnbull, 1990) notes that "The diverse nature of the different
elements of the plan and activities critical to making the overall
project a success made the need for ongoing communication very
important." The report goes on to note that the case of the Project
Management Team and other coordination mechanisms has been used as
a model for other subsequent projects and cite the following key
elements that ultimately made the planning process work:
- Strong support and commitment from the top levels and key
individuals within the different agencies. Most often
noted was the strong leadership from the MN/DOT
Commissioners and other top M N/DOT staff, the support of
FHWA administrators, and the support of the regional
agencies (Metropolitan Council and Regionc4 Transit
Board) and the city of Minneapolis.
- Good working relationship among the technical staff of
the different agencies and jurisdictions, and the high
level of interaction between the staff and the
consultants on the project.
- The lack of agreement at the metropolitan level
concerning the future role for transit, especially rail
transit, in the area. This resulted in a lack of
agreement on the role for transit in the I-394 corridor.
- The continued involvement of the public, neighborhood
groups and local communities in the process. Even with
the vocal and often strong opposition by many community
groups, residents and local elected officials were
willing to continue to work with MN/DOT and other
agencies to try to reach a plan acceptable to all.
- The involvement of the Minnesota Legislature in stopping
work on I-394 planning, and ultimately restricting the
width and design of the facility.
- Once the final decision had been made in 1981, the early
involvement of affected agencies and organizations in the
tanning process was important. For example, the State
Patrol, which would be responsible for enforcement of
both the Sane Lane and the permanent HOV lanes, was
brought into the process early to insure that the lanes
were designed and operated to accommodate safe and
efficient enforcement.
While Turnbull notes that all groups were "not...always in
agreement on every issue throughout the development of the plan,"
she adds that The process provided for the open discussion of
issues and resolutions of conflicting points of view in such a
manner that the ongoing coordination and communication was not
jeopardized." An important feature of this coordination was the
agreement on the part of all implementing agencies to actively
support the project during the 18-month start-up period to give the
HOV Express Lanes a fair test.
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1.2.6 Media Relations
Recent media coverage of the I-394 Express Lanes has been
almost uniformly positive. The Corridor Manager, Al Pint of
MN/DOT, notes that "good media relations are more important than
advertising in ensuring project success," although he observed that
good advertising and advertising placement can help promote
positive media coverage. Other steps taken to promote positive
media coverage included:
- Media training for all I-394 Project Engineers;
- The dedication of a full-time staff person to project
liaison and public information;
- Regular press releases, current press kits, and media
tours of the HOV lanes prior to opening; and
- The release of key data in a timely fashion.
As a result of these steps, the press and electronic media
have generally placed I-394 activities in a favorable light, have
reported ongoing developments accurately and have generated
positive news coverage. On opening day, for example, the press
staged a "race" along the length of the project by a carpool and a
single occupant vehicle, a race won handily by the carpool.
Press opposition to I-394 tends to come from rail advocates
who feel that HOV lanes are half-measures foisted off on a gullible
public by "freeway mathematicians.... concrete spending, and their
guardian angels from think tanks" using "stacks and stacks of
dubious numbers." (Jim Klobuchar; Minneapolis Star Tribune,
September, 1993). They question whether the money spent to change
people's behavior ("...to coax them to learn to love carpooling and
buses") will solve the traffic problem. As Jim Klobuchar wrote in
the Minneapolis Star Tribune "we aren't going to change a whole lot
of behavior, despite the claims of earnest propagandists who are
trying to justify the lonely express lane and the parking
warehouses."
To counter these barbs, MN/DOT has tried to create realistic
expectations for the I-394 Express Lanes and market the lanes as a
promising mobility option that represents a single element of the
solution to Minneapolis traffic problems, not a panacea for
congestion.
1.2.7 Community Reaction
Community reaction to I-394 has generally been as positive as
media coverage.
Public Reaction. As noted, 75% of western Minneapolis
residents interviewed by phone three months after the completion of
the project reported that they were satisfied with I-394. Follow-
up questions among those expressing dissatisfaction revealed most
of the residents expressing some measure of dissatisfaction
(roughly half of those interviewed) were displeased because certain
points along the freeway remained congested during the morning and
evening peaks. MN/DOT's answer to those disappointed with
continuing congestion, as expressed in its I-394 Newsletter,
Expressions, reflects the Agency's policy of promoting realistic
public expectations:
I-394 was not designed to be congestion4ree, the financial and
environmental costs of such a design are just too great.
Instead, I-394 offers mobility now and into the future through
increased carpooling and bus riding. MN/DOT is currently
analyzing the I-394 design in the Penn Avenue and I-94
interchange area to
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determine if there are any modifications that would help ease
congestion in those areas.
Source: MN/DOT I-394 Expressions, Spring/Summer 1993
Business Reaction: MN/DOT's relationship with the businesses
along the I-394 route got off to a rocky start, with early research
showing a majority of the businesses negative about the frequency
and quality of the communication received from MN/DOT. However,
the Phase III Report notes that "efforts to improve the situation
increased and 1990 research showed a significant improvement in
both the frequency and quality of the information received." These
efforts included newsletters, special meetings and construction
bulletins with maps that could be reproduced for the customer of
the affected businesses.
MN/DOT received much criticism after several businesses closed
during the construction phase and directly blamed the I-394 project
for their failure. In order to maintain as good a relationship as
possible with the business community, a MN/DOT worked closely with
the 1,250 member Twin West Chamber of Commerce, meeting monthly
with a special task force comprised of business owners." (Draft
Phase III Report) This helped keep MN/DOT in tune to business owner
needs during various stages of the project. Ongoing research in
1988 and 1990 showed that very few business owners experienced
significant negative impacts from the construction. Those who did
cite a negative impact tended to be businesses dependent on sight
lines and drive-by customers.
1.2.8 Ongoing Monitoring and Evaluation
From conception through implementation and operation, the I-
394 Project has consistently maintained a high level of ongoing
monitoring, evaluation, and reporting. In addition to the
regularly scheduled newsletters, project documentation includes a
comprehensive Transportation System Management Plan (Strgar,
Roscoe-Fausch, 1986), as well as major evaluation reports on Phase
I (Strgar, Roscoe-Fausch, 1987), and Phase 11 (Strgar-Roscoe -
Fausch, 1990). A Phase III Report is currently in preparation.
These reports reveal a well-thoughtout evaluation plan that
identified necessary pre-project data and defined the ongoing
measurements needed to provide meaningful measures of
effectiveness. The evaluation not only analyzed traffic data, but
also documented public reactions through focus groups and telephone
surveys. The process has enabled MN/DOT to assess the
effectiveness of the project at regular intervals and to establish
a credible forum for reporting evaluation findings to the media and
the public in a timely fashion.
1.3 REASONS FOR SUCCESS
By almost any measure, the I-394 Express Lanes can be termed a
success. They are accepted by the public, offer carpoolers and bus
riders a consistent time savings of five to seven minutes, have
minimal violation rates, carry 48% of the Corridor's commuters
during the peak morning hour, and have led to the formation of a
number of carpools. Many factors contributed to this success in
the planning, design, construction and operation stages. The
factors judged to be most important by the participants themselves
were cited as follows in the Phase I Report (Strgar, Roscoe-Fausch,
1987):
- The lane worked the way it was intended to work. Its
benefit in bypassing congestion is clearly visible to
people who use Highway 12.
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- The promises for time savings were kept. People perceive
greater time savings than were promised and say this is
the main reason they use the HOV lane.
- The definition of a carpool as a passenger vehicle with
two or more people made it easier to form carpools and
put reasonable volumes in the lane immediately; thus,
there was no "empty lane syndrome."
- Occupancy requirements were rigorously enforced. Patrols
were highly visible during the first few weeks of
operation and periodically thereafter.
- There was top-down open support from within MN/DOT and
strong interagency support for the project. The public
commitment of the Commissioner and the major decision-
making role of the Corridor Management Team were very
important in achieving this support.
- By designating a Corridor Manager, with responsibility
for the operation of the interim HOV lane as well as the
construction of I-394, MN/DOT was able to respond
immediately to any problems or criticism.
- A lot of attention was given to providing timely
information to people, to maintaining a positive image of
I-394 construction and the HOV lane, and to marketing the
benefits of carpooling and riding the bus. A variety of
methods were used including a telephone "hotline,"
newsletters, billboards, media coverage and special
events.
- A system of supportive facilities and programs was
implemented to provide the best possible level of
service, cost savings and time savings for people who
carpool or ride the bus.
The last four of these factors (interagency support, focused
responsibility, timely information, and support facilities) fall
under the traditional heading of marketing concerns. However, the
first four factors, which address the design and operating
decisions which ensured that the lanes would work the way they were
intended to work, were just as important from a marketing
standpoint. In the words of Corridor Manager Al Pint, "It's easy
to market a good product."
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A-2 CASE STUDY: HAMPTON ROADS ROUTE 44 (PHASE 1)
2.1 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
2.1.1 Location and Design
At the Norfolk/Hampton Crossroads, where Route 44,I-64, and I-
264 meet between Norfolk, Hampton Roads, and Virginia Beach, HOV
lanes were planned on I-64 and the-Virginia Beach-Norfolk
Expressway (Route 44). The segment on Route 44 consisted of five
miles (ten lane miles) of concurrent flow HOV lanes. Adjoining
lanes on I-64 were designed as barrier-separated reversible flow
lanes. (See Exhibit 2.1.) The initial design of the lanes made no
provision for express bus service or park-and-ride facilities.
2.1.2 Scheduling
The first leg of the HOV system was constructed on Route 44.
The concurrent-flow lanes were constructed in two phases, with the
first phase opening in September, 1986 and the. second phase
opening in January 1987. When federal money for the completion of
the 1. reversible lane on I-64 proved to be slow in coming, VDOT
had to decide whether to open the Route 44 lanes as HOV lanes or
open the new lanes to all traffic and restrict them to HOVs when
the entire system was complete. Feeling it would be too difficult
to reclaim the lanes for HOVs once they had been opened to all
traffic, VDOT decided to restrict the new lanes to vehicles with
three or more occupants from opening day onward. Unfortunately,
the decision was not made until two months before the lanes were to
open, leaving little time to plan a marketing campaign.
2.1.3 Utilization
Once operational, the lanes shaved five minutes from commuting
times during rush hour. However, few motorists elected to take
advantage of this time savings by forming three-person carpools.
One month after opening, the lanes carded just 50 vehicles per
hour, or about one percent of the total number of rush-hour
vehicles. One year after opening, in September 1987, HOV lane
traffic had grown to 250 vehicles per hour. This included a number
of violators, as exasperated non-carpoolers wove in and out of the
HOV lanes. Even with violators, the lanes appeared to be empty,
and outrage grew. "I don't think people would have been so mad if
they'd seen a car in there now and then," one state senator who
opposed the lanes was quoted as saying. Politicians, recognizing
that the number of non-carpoolers far outnumbered the number of
carpoolers, capitalized on the public outrage. Four months after
the Route 44 HOV lanes were opened, a General Assembly Bill was
introduced to rescind the HOV concept on Hampton Roads. During the
1987 elections, seven candidates in seven contested races for
General Assembly from the Norfolk-Virginia Beach area opposed the
HOV lanes. VDOT stood behind the lanes, citing numbers that showed
the lanes were carrying a growing proportion of the people moving
on the expressway. This satisfied neither the public nor the
politicians, who accused VDOT of using "...one of the oldest tricks
in the book: lies, damn lies, and statistics." (Assemblyman Glenn
Croshaw, quoted in the September 6, 1992 Virginia Pilot and Ledger-
Star).
2.1.4 Rescinding the HOV Lanes
The legislature prevailed and the General Assembly passed a
law exempting Virginia communities with population profiles fitting
the Norfolk-Hampton Road-Virginia Beach area from HOV restrictions.
In April, 1988, nineteen months after they opened, the HOV
restrictions on, Route 44 were rescinded and workers sandblasted
the diamond symbols from the pavement. In a
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compromise move undertaken to protect federal funding, it was
agreed that lanes would be reopened when the entire HOV system was
completed on I-64. Accordingly, the HOV-3 signs were left
standing, covered with a message saying that the carpool provisions
were "temporarily rescinded." (See Exhibit 2.2). At their peak, the
Route 44 lanes carded only 250 vehicles per hour, less than 5% of
the vehicles and less than 20% of the commuters using the route.
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2.2 MARKETING
2.2.1 Overview
Because the decision to open the Route 44 lanes as HOV-3 lanes
was delayed until two months before the actual opening of the
lanes, little pre-project marketing could be accomplished.
Marketing activities were handled by VDOT's Suffolk District
Office, which budgeted $40,000 for the following items:
- A brochure entitled "Want to Travel in Faster Company?"
- A two-page newspaper ad in the Virginia Pilot, and
- An instructional video.
2.2.2 Market Research and Coalition Building
Little research into public attitudes preceded the project,
and the adverse public response to the HOV lanes was
underestimated. The short set-up period also left no time to-build
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coalitions with allied agencies or seek out potential supporters in
the legislature. As a result, the lanes were largely unenforced,
and the General Assembly had no trouble passing the bill that
killed HOV lane operations.
A survey of commuters and ridesharers conducted when the lanes
were in operation showed that even ridesharers had problems with
the Route 44 lanes. Ridesharers observed that too few people used
the lanes; they were not well enforced; they did not go far enough
(i.e., onto adjacent I-64); and it was unsafe when drivers from
other lanes pulled in.
2.2.3 Monitoring and Evaluation
In defending the HOV lanes, VDOT cited counts which indicated
that the number of carpools was growing and promised that
conditions would improve when the system was completed. After
eighteen months, however, the lanes carded only 250 vehicles per
hour, far too few to overcome the "empty lane syndrome." The
promise of more vehicles at some indefinite future date did little
to sway public opinion.
2.2.4 Reasons for Failure
When reversible HOV lanes on I-64 were completed, the Route 44
lanes were reopened as part of a broader system (See Section 3.0).
At this time, VDOT personnel reviewed the reasons the lanes had
failed to gain a following during their initial incarnation. These
reasons are listed below:
- We failed to gain support for HOV from those who could
not use the lanes.
- Use was very low. Volume never increased enough to
overcome the impact of empty lane syndrome perceptions.
- There was little time savings experienced by the
commuters.
- The system was too incomplete to be a significant benefit
to the public.
- The public couldn't conveniently make rideshare
accommodations in order to make use of the lanes.
- The violation rate was high; the enforcement rate was
low.
Source: Historical Perspective, paper prepared by Lynda South
Webster, Director of Public Affairs for VDOT.
Lynda South Webster, VDOT's Director of Public Affairs, noted
that the "failure to realize material benefits in time savings,
slow growth in overall use, and a poor understanding and "buy in"
of the long-range benefits" led to the rescinding of the Route 44
lanes. While she observed that reducing the carpool requirement to
HOV-2 might have helped counter the empty lane syndrome, the
project as staged was incomplete and unsupported by either a
rideshare program or park-and-ride lots. "The product was simply
not a good one," she concluded and "the best marketing program
can't salvage a poor product."
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2.2.5 Concurrent Project
At the same time that the Route 44 HOV lanes were creating
controversy and generating legislative opposition, an experimental
HOV access lane was successfully implemented at the entrance of the
Midtown Portal leading out of Norfolk. The access lane offered a
20-minute time savings to ridesharing commuters and was opened to
three-person carpools shortly after being opened for van pools and
buses on August 1, 1981. The acceptance of this lane, which ,
continues to operate successfully, showed that the Hampton Roads
public could accept the HOV concept if it were properly designed
and presented. In contrast to the Route 44 lanes, VDOT felt that
these access lanes succeeded because:
- They offered a significant time savings;
- They did not obviously inconvenience the general public,
which liked the new traffic pattern;
- A personal sales/promotion campaign that targeted
corridor commuters;
- Good signage; and
- Heavy monitoring and enforcement.
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A-3 CASE STUDY: HAMPTON ROADS ROUTE 44 AND I-64 (PHASE 11)
3.1 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
3.1.1 Location and Design
To protect federal funding for the freeway improvements
planned at the Norfolk/Hampton Crossroads, it was agreed that the
HOV lanes on Route 44 would be re-opened where the reversible lanes
on I-64 were completed and the entire HOV system was in place.
After the elimination of HOV restrictions on Route 44, traffic
volumes continued to increase until all lanes, including those
designated for future HOV conversion, were operating at capacity.
Therefore, VDOT concluded it would be necessary to convert the
outside shoulders of Route 44 to travel lanes so that there would
be no reduction in the total number of lanes available to mixed-
flow traffic when HOV restrictions were re-established. The
shoulder lane conversion was scheduled to take place in the same
time frame as the reverse lane construction on I-64, leading to the
final project design already depicted in Exhibit 2.1.
3.1.2 Scheduling
The completed HOV project at the Norfolk/Hampton Crossroads
opened on September 15, 1992. In the four-and-a-half years between
the legislatively-mandated lifting of restrictions on Route 44 and
the opening of the completed system, VDOT took several measures to
ensure the success of the new system. These included:
- The formation of an HOV Steering Committee;
- The development of a long-range marketing program;
- The design of several rideshare support facilities; and
- The redefinition of occupancy requirements.
HOV Steering Committee: An HOV Steering Committee was
established to develop a plan to ensure public acceptance of the
HOV system in Hampton Roads. Members of the Committee included
representatives of:
- Local municipalities (Norfolk, Virginia Beach,
Chesapeake)
- Hampton Roads PDC
- Norfolk Naval Base
- Virginia State Police
- VDOT
- Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation
(VDRPT)
- Tidewater Regional Transportation District Commission
(TRT)
Long-Range Marketing Plan: Recognizing the importance of
marketing to the success of the HOV system, the HOV Committee
established a marketing subcommittee and delegated the task of
developing a five-year marketing program to TRT. This provided the
group with additional marketing expertise, as well as a marketing
consultant to work with VDOT's public affairs office and resulted
in the development of a 5-year marketing plan. This plan is
described in more detail in Section 3.2.
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Rideshare Support Facilities: To help ensure the success of
the HOV lanes, a number of support facilities and programs were
developed. These included:
- Computer ridematching;
- Employer outreach programs;
- Additional park-and-ride lots;
- Highway signage promoting ridematching and existing park-
and-ride facilities;
- Express Bus Service from several park-and-ride lots in
Virginia Beach to the Naval Base; and
- A Commuter Check Program of subsidized transit fares for
participating employees (as much as $60/month).
Occupancy Requirement. To combat the empty lane syndrome
which helped to doom the initial Route 44 HOV lanes, the Committee
strongly recommended that transportation officials open the new
lanes to two-person carpools (HOV-2) and move to three-person
carpools (HOV-3) when congestion in the HOV lanes dictated the need
for tighter restrictions.
3.1.3 Utilization
Early vehicle counts and traffic observations suggest that the HOV
lanes on Route 44, I-564, and I-64 have improved traffic conditions
in Hampton Roads, but data are too limited to support definitive
conclusions. Exhibit 3.1 shows speeds during the peak morning
commute period in the conventional lanes before and after the
installation of HOV lanes. The exhibit shows that speeds in
conventional lanes improved dramatically with the installation of
HOV lanes, while vehicles in the HOV lane were able to travel at 55
miles per hour throughout the morning peak.
Eight months after installation, the freeways were carrying
approximately the same number of people in 12% fewer vehicles
during the morning peak, and the number of carpools with two or
more people had more than doubled, increasing from 1,439 before the
HOV lane opening to 3,043 after eight months. During the evening
peak, 4,328 carpools used the freeways, up from 3,269 before the
HOV lanes opened.
3.2 MARKETING
3.2.1 Overview
In view of the negative public reaction to the initial opening of
HOV lanes on Route 44, the HOV Steering Committee felt it needed to
"...be more positive, set a stronger image, and promote a civic
responsibility (to rideshare)." To accomplish this, the Committee
developed a five-year, three-phase marketing plan designed to
"overcome past problems, create positive awareness, and induce
ridesharing through the use of HOV lanes."*
___________________________
*Hampton Roads Area HOV-Rideshare Marketing Program, May, 1989.
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.
A-3-3
HOV Objectives. The marketing plan began to cast the lanes in
a positive light well in advance of their actual opening.
- Phase 1. The first phase of the three-phase plan started
in FY 1989/90, three years prior to the scheduled opening
of the HOV project. The goals of this phase of the
project were:
- to promote the concept of ridesharing;
- to show the benefits of ridesharing to individuals;
- to inform the public of the possibilities of
ridesharing; and
- to promote the concept of HOV lanes and issue status
reports on construction progress.
- Phase II of the marketing plan covered the final year of
construction before the lanes opened. During this period
the overall marketing objectives remained the same, but
emphasis shifted to HOV lane operating issues and away
from more general ridesharing messages.
- Phase III of the marketing plan covered the first two
years of HOV operation. The marketing objectives during
this phase were to open the lanes successfully, ensure
their continuing acceptance and use, and give credibility
to the lanes" effectiveness and use. At the same time,
the plan called for the continued promotion of the
community and individual benefits of ridesharing.
Budget. The marketing plan called for a budget of $1.5 million
over the five-year time frame. Funding sources included FHWA,
VDOT, and State Transit funds.
Key Issues. VDOT was forthright in admitting that the initial
Hampton Roads HOV lanes had been a failure and conveying the
message that they had learned from that failure. A key phrase in
Phase I and 11 advertising was:
"THIS TIME HOV GOES THE DISTANCE"
reflecting the fact that the longer lanes offered more significant
time-savings, and carrying the positive message that the lanes
would succeed this time out.
To address key issues, VDOT and its consultant developed a
series of positioning statements. These bullets of information
addressed the HOV system's key selling points and provided a solid,
consistent base for discussing the HOV system with the news media,
citizens, civic groups, and other audiences. The statements were
divided into four key categories, as outlined below.
- HOV Lanes Benefit Commuters. "HOV makes life better for
commuters because it saves them money, time, and reduces
the stress involved in driving to and from work."
- HOV Lanes Benefit the Community. Hampton Road growth is
affecting air quality and placing more demands on the
transportation network. Clean air and smooth traffic
flow are vitally important to creating jobs in the area.
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- The Transportation Industry Is Changing: "Because of
environmental concerns, rising construction costs and
limited space, transportation networks are being designed
under a different philosophy. We are developing multi-
modal systems that effectively deal with current - and
future - traffic conditions."
- Route 44 and I-64 Are a Very Important Part of the HOV
SysteM. The HOV lanes on Route 44 and I-64 are a
critical part of the system because they serve the
State's largest population center.
3.2.2 Market Research
Attitudinal and behavioral research was conducted during each
of the three phases of the Marketing Program.
Benchmark Research: During Phase 1, ridesharers using Route
44 and the Midtown tunnel were interviewed, along with a sampling
of all commuters using Route 44. This research, which was
conducted while the ill-fated HOV lanes were in effect on Route 44,
showed that:
- While commuters were fairly affluent, ridesharers tended
to be in the middle income brackets;
- Ridesharing was discretionary. Most ridesharers (88%)
had access to a vehicle they could use for commuting.
- The three primary reasons for ridesharing were: (1) to
avoid traffic congestion (23%); (2) to save money (20%);
and (3) to take advantage of HOV lanes (12%).
- About 30% of non-ridesharing commuters believed that
nothing would make them share a ride. Another 360/o
would share a ride and use the HOV lanes only if they did
not have a car available.
- The work place was most often cited as the place where
ridesharers recalled seeing or hearing materials
promoting ridesharing. After the workplace came
newspapers, radio and television.
Interim Research: Interim research conducted during the
summer of 1991 as part of Phase 11 of the marketing program
included both focus groups and commuter surveys. This research
indicated that awareness of ridesharing was rising and support for
HOV lanes was increasing.
Ongoing Research: Interviews conducted after the lanes were
opened found that 70% of the commuters responding to the interviews
were in favor of the HOV lanes.
3.2.3 Campaign Strategy
Phase 1: The campaign goals during Phase 1 (1989 to 1991)
were:
- To build a constituency for HOV lanes among potential
users and non-users before the lanes were reinstated and
change negative attitudes to neutral or positive
attitudes. The key message chosen to accomplish this was
"Ridesharing is not for everyone, but the benefits are!"
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- To keep commuters well informed. This was accomplished
through road construction updates.
- To create a public attitude that single occupant vehicle
travel was not desirable.
Activities during Phase I included employer outreach programs
and speakers bureaus. Other promotional activities included
newspaper ads, outdoor advertising, and brochures promoting
ridesharing and vanpooling. Regular news releases updated the
media on construction progress.
Phase II: Phase 11 of the marketing program covered the year
before the lanes opened. During this period, the key positioning
messages stayed the same, but the campaign emphasis shifted to
public education in anticipation of the opening of the HOV lanes.
Major outreach activities included:
- A half-day HOV Conference to educate employers,
government representatives, judicial leaders, and the
media regarding the conception, design and use of the HOV
lanes.
- Media visits to show media representatives how the new
HOV lanes, express bus service, and rideshare program
would work.
- A large static display with a map of the HOV lanes and
information describing the working of the lanes and the
associated rideshare programs and express bus service.
This display was stocked with brochures and rotated
through shopping centers and large employment sites.
Promotional activities included:
- Educational public service announcements;
- Radio and TV campaigns;
- Radio and TV talk shows;
- A commuter guide for the newspapers; and
- New highway signs, including a series of "burma shave"
limericks promoting HOV lane use and ridesharing in
general.
Phase III: Phase III of the Marketing Program covered the
opening of the lanes. The immediate campaign strategy at this time
shifted to operational issues and focused on instructing the public
in the use of the lanes.
Outreach activities included:
- A video showing how to use the HOV lanes that was
provided to Naval Commands and other large area
employers;
- A pre-opening press event that included a bus tour of the
HOV lanes;
- Brochures with questions and answers on lane use that
were distributed to large area employers.
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Promotional activities included:
- A full-page newspaper article showing how to use the
lanes;
- Sponsorship of radio traffic reports;
- Release of the "how to" video for cable TV use;
- Newspaper and radio promotion;
- News releases; and
- Promotional tie-ins with Pizza Hut (see Exhibit 3.2).
3.2.4 Marketing Materials
Marketing materials developed at the time the new lanes were
opened bore the emblem:
HOV-2
which served as a unifying theme and also helped to distinguish the
new HOV lanes from the failed I-44 lanes, which had three-person
occupancy requirements.
Effective Materials. Marketing approaches judged to be most
effective were:
- Burma Shave Signs. Roadside jingles modeled after the old
"Burma-Shave" signs reached corridor commuters directly
with memorable messages. A sample message appears below:
.
Local marketing personnel felt that these signs
represented the most effective use of their advertising
dollars.
- Traffic Report Spots. VDOT and TRT sponsored live "reads"
by traffic reporters during the commute periods. These
messages not only reached drivers during their commute
(and sounded like reporting rather than public service
messages) but also improved the reporters' views of the
lanes.
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.
A-3-8
- Brochures: An all purpose fold-out brochure was
developed that bore a map of the project, instructions
for using the lanes, information on express bus service,
and common questions and answers regarding lane design
and use.
Ineffective Approaches: Participants agreed that one
marketing approach that work involved the attempt to establish a
villainous character, the Lone Rider (see Exhibit 3.3), to
discourage single occupant commuting.
.
A-3-9
This concept attempted to make "bad guys" out of the majority of
the drivers in the Hampton Roads area using the image of the Lone
Ranger (who was, after all, a "good guy.") Leaving aside the bad-
guy/good-guy confusion, the concept failed for a more basic reason:
It was impossible to establish the identity of the character in the
public's mind using the limited air time and print exposure
available to donated public service messages.
3.2.5 Constituency Building
Steering Committee: As a first step toward constituency
building, VDOT formed an HOV Steering committee (see Section 3.1.2)
composed of representatives of all those public agencies and
entities having an interest in the HOV Project. In addition to
VDOT, these included the local municipalities, the Hampton Roads
PDC, the Norfolk Naval Base, the Virginia State Police, the
Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation, and TRT.
Transportation Conference: Roughly six months before the HOV
lanes were scheduled to open, VDOT and TRT invited business,
government, and public opinion leaders to a half-day transportation
conference designed to explore ways to "work together to solve the
transportation problems of our region." The invitations echoed the
"Burma Shave" jingles- used to advertise the coming of the HOV
lanes:
We're all in this jam
Like grapes in a bunch
So join us for breakfast
And be gone by lunch.
In addition to a continental breakfast, attendees received
small jars of grape "Traffic Jam" as a reminder of the problem.
The well-attended and well-received program was composed of "jam
sessions" that featured a look at HOV lanes around the country, as
well as the HOV component of the planned Hampton Roads network, and
included discussions of ridesharing, light rail, integrated
transportation systems, and employer participation.
Employer Outreach: VDOT and TRT included the area's largest
employer, the Norfolk Naval Base, on the HOV Steering Committee,
and made sure that base officials were aware of progress and
policies involving the Hampton Roads HOV project. A program of
ongoing education and promotion was necessary because of the
constantly changing work force at the base. To provide this
ongoing program, the marketing committee set up a computerized
rideshare matching program on the base, distributed instructional
videos, and contributed a weekly Column to the base newspaper.
Other area employers were contacted with more traditional
outreach efforts, which included brochures, videos, and
construction updates.
Top Level Spokespersons: In an attempt to counter any
negative image left by the early failure of the Route 44 lanes, the
HOV Steering Committee made a point of employing top echelon people
from individual agencies whenever a spokesperson was needed to
address the public regarding HOV plans and policies. For example,
John Milliken, Virginia's Secretary of Transportation, gave the
keynote speech at the Transportation Conference preceding the
opening of the lanes. The use of top level personnel sent the
clear message that the individual agencies had strong top-down
support for the HOV concept.
A-3-10
3.2.6 Media Relations
Media coverage of the new, improved HOV lanes was almost
uniformly positive. The local newspaper, the Virginia-Pilot gave
the lanes ten days of feature-article coverage prior to opening.
Each article was headed by a count-down logo (see below) listing
the number of days remaining before the lanes opened on September
15.
.
Articles over the ten-day period covered such topics as the
scheduled hours, the success of HOV lanes in Northern Virginia, the
previous failure of the Route 44 HOV lanes, measures of success,
how-to-information, and common questions and answers.
Among the features that helped to provide positive press coverage
were:
- The positioning statements which helped to focus media
coverage;
- Forthright comparisons of the new project with the
previous Route 44, lanes, emphasizing the reasons the
current version was likely to succeed; and
- police-escorted tour of the lanes for photographers and
press representatives prior to opening.
3.2.7 Community Reaction
As reported by VDOT, "...the HOV lanes opened without
measurable negative comment from the press or public." After one
week of, operation, the I-64 lanes carried as many as 4,000
vehicles during the evening peak period, 1,000 more than projected.
Eight months after the lanes opened, there were 4,902 HOVs using
the reversible I-64 roadway during the evening peak.
A-3-11
Commuter surveys conducted after the lanes opened indicated
that 70% of those surveyed were in favor of the lanes.
3.2.8 Monitoring and Evaluation
An ongoing program of monitoring and evaluation has been
established under which VDOT and the Southwestern Virginia PDC
monitor vehicle occupancy rates at established locations at regular
intervals. Reports documenting these occupancy levels and relative
travel speeds have been produced at six-month intervals. At the
same time, TRT monitors the usage of park-and-ride lots and transit
services, while VDOT conducts regular surveys of commuter attitudes
and awareness. Reports to date have made no attempt to draw
conclusions regarding the effectiveness of the lanes, largely
because the lanes have been operational for a relatively short
time.
3.2.9 General Marketing Conclusions
Although it is too early to judge the effectiveness of the
Hampton Roads HOV lanes, they are carrying more carpools than
planners initially projected and have been well received by the
public. Reflecting on their experience with both the initial HOV
lanes on Route 44 and the more complete current network, the public
relations personnel at VDOT set down the following conclusions:
1. The HOV concept is not easily accepted by the public.
2. For HOV to be successful, a change in commuter attitude
and behavior toward ridesharing is essential... it alone
will overcome the empty lane syndrome.
3. A transient workforce (Navy) necessitates constant
education on "how to" use the HOV system.
4. Continued acceptance of HOV requires continued education
and promotion of the personal and social benefits of
ridesharing to commuters, employers and political
leaders.
5. Good enforcement is also key to positive perception of
how well the HOV lanes work. Ease of enforcement must be
a key component in designing future systems.
6. Convenience is a key factor. Convenient, safe park-and-
ride lot locations, ridematching services, express bus
service and employer support are essential elements in
the success of the HOV system.
7. It appears that public acceptance is contingent on the
perception of high utilization of the lane. Success
breeds success... The strategy of starting with HOV-2 and
moving up as congestion dictates is consistent with this
idea.
A-3-12
A-4 CASE STUDY: THE SANTA MONICA DIAMOND LANES
The project description and marketing analysis which follows
borrows heavily from SYSTAN's UMTA/TSC Project Evaluation Report
"The Santa Monica Freeway Diamond Lanes" (Billheimer, Bullemer, and
Fratessa, September, 1977).
4.1 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
4.1.1 Location and Design
The Santa Monica Freeway, which connects the City of Santa
Monica and downtown Los Angeles, is one of the most heavily-
traveled freeways in the world, and is served by a variety of
sophisticated traffic control devices, including metered on-ramps
with preferential entry provisions at selected locations, a
computerized surveillance system, and centrally-controlled
electronic displays. On March 15,1976, the California Department
of Transportation (CALTRANS), acting in conjunction with the
California Highway Patrol (CHP) and local bus operators, reserved
the median lane in each direction of a 12-mile, eight-lane segment
of the Santa Monica Freeway for the exclusive use of buses and
carpools carrying three or more occupants. The reserved lanes,
known locally as the Diamond Lanes operated in each direction
during the peak hours of traffic flow. No barriers separated these
lanes from the remaining flow of freeway traffic. Implementation
of the Diamond Lanes was accompanied by the introduction of a
variety of express bus services and the opening of three new Park-
and-Ride lots in Western Los Angeles. Exhibit 4.1 shows the
geographic boundaries of the Santa Monica Diamond Lanes, as well as
the locations of the Parkand-Ride lots and the supporting bus
service.
4.1.2 Scheduling
The Santa Monica Freeway project marked the first time
preferential lanes had been created by taking busy freeway lanes
out of existing service and dedicating them to the exclusive
use of high-occupancy vehicles. Although the Diamond Lanes
entailed no major physical modifications or construction on the
freeway itself, they generated considerable emotional reaction
among freeway drivers and other residents of Los Angeles. The
project neither started nor ended as scheduled. The original
starting date was delayed by a combination of concerns including
operational readiness, financial problems, a local dispute over the
implications of nationwide labor protective agreements, and the
Southern California rainy season. When the Diamond Lanes finally
opened, the first day of operations was disastrous, featuring
bumper-to-bumper traffic, long queues at on-ramps, a malfunctioning
ramp meter, many accidents, outraged drivers, poor press notices,
and derisive news commentary. As the project progressed, freeway
performance improved somewhat and both bus and carpool ridership
increased, but accidents remained a serious problem and the climate
of public opinion and media reaction grew more hostile. The
preferential lanes operated amid much controversy for 21 weeks
until August 9, 1976, when Judge Matthew Byrne of the U.S. District
Court in Los Angeles halted the project and ordered additional
environmental studies prior to its continuation.
4.1.3 Utilization
Much of the controversy surrounding the Diamond Lanes
consisted of conflicting claims regarding the ability of the
project to accomplish its stated objectives of conserving energy,
improving air quality, and expanding effective freeway capacity by
increasing the occupancy of buses and automobiles using the
freeway. SYSTAN's independent analysis of the vast quantities of
data assembled by both friends and foes of the project revealed
that, although some of the
A-4-1
.
A-4-2
stated objectives had been attained by the close of the
demonstration, the cost in accidents, driver delay, and public
outrage was far greater than anyone had anticipated. Major
findings of that analysis are summarized below.
On the positive side of the ledger:
- During the last seven weeks of the project, the Santa
Monica Freeway carried 1.8% fewer people in 10.1% fewer
automobiles than it had carried prior to the project in
the morning and evening peak periods. The entire
corridor, including parallel surface streets, carried 1%
more people in 5% fewer vehicles.
- The number of carpools on the freeway increased by 65%
during the project.
- In response to both the Diamond Lanes and a significant
increase in transit routes and service frequency, daily
bus ridership between the Westside study area and the Los
Angeles CBD more than tripled, increasing from 1,171
riders per day prior to the project to 3,793 riders per
day during the last week of Diamond Lane operation.
- Speeds recorded by carpoolers in the Diamond Lanes were
both faster and rr)pre consistent than pre-demonstration
speeds. Carpoolers traveling the length, of the Diamond
Lanes were able to save between two and three minutes
over pre-project travel times and approximately five or
six minutes over travel times in other lanes.
However, certain hoped-for benefits failed to materialize
during the short life of the project:
- After an initial increase, fuel consumption levels on the
freeway and adjacent city streets dropped slightly during
the last seven weeks of the project, falling an estimated
0.8% below pre-project levels.
- ...Estimates of vehicle emissions made on the basis of
mileage computations indicated that emissions increased
early in the project and dropped to pre-project levels by
the close of the demonstration.
Moreover, the positive and neutral impacts of the project were
counterbalanced by the following negative considerations:
- Freeway accidents rose markedly during the project. An
average of 25 accidents per week occurred during Diamond
Lane operating hours, roughly 2.5 times the weekly pre-
project average.
- During the Diamond Lane demonstration, freeway speeds for
non-carpoolers were both slower and less predictable than
they were before the demonstration. Although speeds
improved as the demonstration progressed, freeway driving
time for noncarpoolers traveling the full length of the
Diamond Lanes over the last seven weeks of the project
were slightly more than one minute longer than pre-
project levels in the westbound direction during the P.M.
peak and more than four minutes longer in the eastbound
direction during the A.M. peak.
- Average delays at the busiest metered ramps increased
between one and five minutes per car during the peak
hours of morning and evening operations.
- Combining ramp delays and slower freeway speeds, measured
increases in total trip times for non-carpoolers
traveling eastbound on the freeway in the morning ranged
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from six minutes per trip at the western end of the
freeway to negligible increases at on-ramps near the CBD.
Corresponding increases for westbound travelers in the
evening ranged from seven minutes per trip for drivers
entering near the CBD to insignificant delays west of La
Cienega Boulevard for drivers entering midway along the
length of the project.
- Aggregate travel speeds on surface streets paralleling
the freeway slowed slightly during the demonstration,
dropped by about 4.5%.
- The weight of the media and public opinion were solidly
against the project. Eighty six percent of corridor
drivers surveyed, including the majority of carpoolers,
felt that the Diamond Lanes were either harmful or of no
benefit whatsoever.
After the close of the demonstration, conditions on the
freeway approximated those experienced prior to the project.
Although bus service continued and bus ridership remained high, at
more than two and one-half times pre-project levels, the number of
carpools dropped to within 5% of the number on the freeway before
the Diamond Lanes were implemented.
Thus, the Santa Monica Freeway Preferential Lane project
succeeded to some degree in attracting riders to carpools and
transit, and increased freeway capacity with a minimum amount of
additional construction and enforcement costs. However, the
project brought about a significant increase in freeway accidents;
energy savings and air quality improvements were insignificant;
non-carpoolers lost far more time than carpoolers gained; and a
heated public outcry developed which delayed the implementation of
other preferential treatment projects.in Southern California and
has given planners and public officials in other areas ample cause
for reflection before attempting to implement similar projects.
4.2 MARKETING
4.2.1 Overview
The participating agencies had developed a conventional marketing
plan (Caltrans, August, 1975) designed primarily to introduce the
public to the Diamond Lanes and induce ridesharing. From its
disastrous opening day onward, the demonstration project was
anything but conventional. It quickly became a media event,
generating reams of newsprint, radio and television coverage, vocal
public reactions, political debate, lawsuits, banners, slogans,
badges, cartoons, and at least one song. As expressed in the
official DOT evaluation (Billheimer, et.al, 1977), "From their
implementation to their dissolution, the Diamond Lanes were never
far from public view and, when in view, they were treated as an
eyesore."
Objectives: The objectives stipulated in the Caltrans
marketing plan were to:
- induce public acceptance of an improved means of mass
transportation which involved taking away one freeway
lane for the exclusive use of buses and carpools;
- enhance the chances of success of the experiment through
maximum public information and education; and
- increase bus patronage and carpooling by promoting new
and improved services in West Los Angeles.
Key Issues: From the start, Caltrans and its allied agencies
recognized that the key issue facing the project was the problem of
taking a lane away from one of the busiest freeways in
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the U.S. and restricting it to bus and carpool use. They were
aware that the early days of the pilot project were likely to be
hectic ones filled with public confusion and activity. As stated
in their marketing plan, the "...project will be a difficult one
requiring a thorough marketing effort, particularly in the advance
and beginning stages of operation when a significant adverse public
reaction can be expected." (Caltrans, August, 1975)
To counteract this anticipated adverse reaction, the marketing
team planned to stress the positive benefits of the project:
economy, convenience, environmental improvement,- energy
conservation, better utilization of existing transit facilities,
and increased ridesharing through both buses and carpools. The
name "Diamond Lane Express" was to provide a "memorable,
meaningful, and promotable identity" for the project, and others
like it.
Budget: The initial promotional program was developed by the
project team as part of an UMTA grant for marketing and data
collection. The sources and recipients of marketing funds are
itemized below.
RECIPIENTS AND SOURCES
OF
MARKETING FUNDS
RECIPIENT AMOUNT SOURCE
CALTRANS $163,650 UMTA
50,456 State
Subtotal 214,106
SCRTD 73,711 UMTA
60,000 LA County
Subtotal 133,711
SMMBL 10,254 UMTA
TOTAL $358,071
Thus a total of $358,071 was allocated to the project for marketing
and public information. Of this, $214,106 went to Caltrans, while
the remainder went to the two participating bus lines, the
Southern California Rapid Transit District (SCRTD - $133,711) and
the Santa Monica Municipal Bus Lines (SMMBL - $10,254).
4.2.2 Market Research
Pre-Project Research: No market research was undertaken in
advance of the Santa Monica Diamond Lane project. The chief
feature of the project, that of lane conversion, had never been
attempted on a similar scale, and it felt that people could not
react intelligently to a project they had not experienced. The
concept of preferential HOV lanes was not new either to Los Angeles
or to the Santa Monica freeway. Twelve of the thirty metered entry
ramps serving the freeway had featured bypass lanes for carpools
with two or more occupants for nearly eight months prior to the
opening of the Santa Monica Diamond Lanes.
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East of Los Angeles on Interstate Route 10 (the same
interstate designated as the Santa Monica Freeway to the east of
the city), the El Monte Busway had been operational since early
1973. Public opinion on the busway had been strongly positive ever
since its opening. The busway had been opened briefly to carpools
during a 1974 bus strike, and was permanently opened to three-
person carpools in October 1976.
Post-Project Research. Once the Santa Monica Diamond
Lanes opened, several mechanisms were used to monitor public
reaction. These included a telephone response center, surveys of
bus riders, carpoolers, and other corridor drivers, ad hoc
newspaper polls, and-public hearings. All these mechanisms
revealed an overwhelmingly negative public response to the Diamond
Lanes. As reported in SYSTAN's DOT evaluation, "In the most
extensive survey undertaken, eighty-six percent of the corridor
drivers surveyed--including the majority of carpoolers-- felt that
the Diamond Lanes were either harmful or of no benefit whatsoever."
4.2.3 Campaign Strategy
The promotional strategy outlined in the initial marketing
plan focused on introducing the public to the Diamond Lane project
and stressing the project's positive benefits.
Introductory campaign. The promotional package used to
introduce this new-service to the public included radio, newspaper,
and television ads, billboards, freeway message signs, and commuter
handouts. Exhibit 4.2 shows the schedule of marketing events
planned around the March 16, 1976 opening date. Following a March
1 press conference, newspaper advertisements began to appear
regularly, the changeable message signs on the freeway advised
commuters of the "Soon to Open" project, and 120,000 brochures were
handed out by CALTRANS personnel on Santa Monica Freeway on-ramps.
The brochures explained the reasons for the Diamond Lanes and how
to use them, and included rules for drivers, alternate route
descriptions, bus and carpool information, and a tear-off postcard
that could be mailed in for additional information.
Ongoing Marketing. Following the disastrous opening day, the
advertising campaign was drowned out by the media outcry and the
public sponsors, placed on the defensive, were able to do little to
counter the tide of adverse public reaction. Early in May,
CALTRANS hired a public relations consultant and took a more
aggressive stance in an attempt to improve the project's image,
broaden the base of support for the Diamond Lanes, and disseminate
project information to a wider community of people.. As part of
this more aggressive marketing campaign, a program of appearances
at public forums was established, downtown employers were
contacted, a "Friends of the Diamond Lane" group was formed, and
quick responses were generated to press coverage that was viewed as
inaccurate or misleading. Unfortunately, CALTRANS own image had
suffered so much by early June that little could be done to improve
the negative image of the project created by the media blasts, the
public outcry, and the more disappointing aspects of the Diamond
Lanes operation. CALTRANS credibility came under attack as foes of
the project generated their own data and attacked CALTRANS
statistics and conclusions. A June 1 Diamond Lane review in the
Los Angeles Times, which was followed by editorials headed
"Dishonesty with Diamonds," and "Sin and the Diamond Lane" were
particularly damaging to CALTRANS.
4.2.4 Marketing Materials
Marketing materials prepared in advance of the Diamond Lanes
opening consisted primarily of hand-out brochures and newspaper ads
featuring the changeable message signs and the freeway itself. (See
Exhibit 4.3.)
A-4-6
.
A-4-7
.
Given the extent of the newspaper ads and accompanying radio
announcements, the use of the changeable message signs, and the
quantity of brochures handed out on the freeway, it is unlikely
that many regular users of the Santa Monica Freeway were unaware
that March 15, 1976 marked the opening of the Diamond Lanes.
Although the lanes themselves should have come as no surprise,
opening day commuters did have reason to be surprised by several of
the unannounced adjustments accompanying the opening of the lanes,
including the tightening of ramp meter rates and the barricading of
the slip ramp at the Harbor Freeway interchange. These unannounced
adjustments undoubtedly contributed to the opening day confusion,
and helped make March 15 the chaotic "Mad Monday" which received
scathing press coverage.
4.2.5 Constituency Building
Several factors contributed to the stormy political weather
encountered during the Diamond Lane demonstration. These included:
- The complexity of transportation planning, financing, and
decision-making in the Los Angeles area;
- The changing philosophy, policies and personnel in the
State transportation-agency; and
- The scheduling of the demonstration in an election year.
All of these factors combined in a setting where everyone talks
about transportation conditions but few are able to do anything
about them. Prior to the project, transportation plans had
proliferated as the number of federal, state and local agencies
with an interest in transportation multiplied. Los Angeles
fragmentation of public power and authority meant that a large
number of government agencies and elected officials had some
purview over the Diamond Lane project.
In an attempt to unify these diverse elements, CALTRANS and
SCRTD formed a Joint Project Committee composed of representatives
of key agencies with an interest in the project. Agencies
participating in Joint Project Committee meetings included:
CALTRANS
Southern California Rapid Transit District (SCRTD)
County of Los Angeles Road Department
Santa Monica Municipal Bus Lines (SMMBL)
California Highway Patrol (CHP)
Commuter Computer
Los Angeles City Traffic Department
Los Angeles Police Department
Los Angeles Mayor's Office
Southern California Association of Governments (SCAG)
Representatives of the County Board of Supervisors sometimes
attended planning meetings, as did staff from SYSTAN, Inc., the
official federal evaluator. No outside marketing personnel were
involved, and members of the press were not invited until after the
project had become front-page news.
Although there was broad agency participation in the Joint
Project Committee, each decisionmaker had his own concept of
project goals, and the degree of involvement and commitment to the
Diamond Lanes varied greatly from agency to agency. When the media
spotlight turned on the project, the public saw not a united front
but a number of public agencies
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and elected officials pointing accusing fingers at the lead
agencies, while other officials remained prudently silent. Several
public agencies responsible for transportation activities adopted
an adversary role which hindered both the free flow of project
information and the coordination of project decisions.
Public reaction and the media din were exacerbated by the
frequent and public opposition of several elected and appointed
City and County officials. The level of opposition ranged from
responsible criticism on the part of some officials who had worked
with project personnel in an attempt to make the Diamond Lanes more
acceptable to their constituents to simple attempts on the part of
other officials to align themselves publicly with the opposition to
a clearly unpopular project. Responsible opposition and objective
analysis had to clamor for a hearing alongside of simplistic
arguments, emotional appeals, and self-serving electioneering. The
Diamond Lanes even became a pawn in the election-year baffle for
the approval of funds for a rapid rail system in Los Angeles (STAMP
OUT DIAMOND LANES: VOTE YES FOR RAPID TRANSIT). In the face of the
opposing clamor from the media, public, and elected and appointed
officials, those officials who might have favored the project found
it prudent to remain silent, and little in the way of a
constructive public dialogue emerged.
CALTRANS, the lead agency responsible for project
implementation, went from a state of flux immediately prior to the
project to a state of siege during the demonstration. In the
period immediately preceding the project, the agency was in a state
of transition that included shifts in executive responsibility at
the State level as well as sweeping layoffs locally. The shuffling
of responsibilities, layoffs, and changes in management caused
problems in both planning continuity and pre-project data collecti
on. Once the project began, the new faces at CALTRANS were
confronted with a new set of problems. Whereas the agency had
become accustomed to public pressure over the building of freeways,
the Diamond Lanes represented a new concept with a new set of aims
and enough adverse side effects to lead some within the agency
itself to question whether CALTRANS was justified in defending the
project. As CALTRANS struggled to assess the operations on the
freeway, deal with the hostile press, and evaluate a number of
complex issues involving the project's future, an impatient press
and public blistered the agency for its apparent intransigence and
insensitivity to the needs of the citizens. (See, for example,
inset cartoon.)
.
4.2.6 Media Relations
Newspaper Coverage. During the 21 weeks of Diamond Lane
operation, the three major daily newspapers covering the project--
the morning Los Angeles Times, the afternoon Herald-Examiner, and
the Santa Monica Evening Outlook--produced an average of nine
articles and editorials per week on the Diamond Lanes. The
predominant tone of the articles was :
A-4-10
negative, and the editorials were solidly against the project.
Although the operations on the freeway improved following the
disastrous opening day, when all three newspapers carried banner
headlines proclaiming "FREEWAY CHAOS" and "DIAMOND IS ROUGH,"
newspaper coverage grew steadily more hostile as the demonstration
progressed. Recurring themes in the press treatment of the project
were:
- The operational failure of the lanes ("A Total Flop," Times,
June 11, 1976);
- The distasteful, coercive nature of the use of disincentives
to encourage carpooling ("Freeway Folly," Herald-Examiner,
March 11, 1976);
- Bureaucratic recalcitrance ("CALTRANS Needs Education,"
Valley News, April 13, 1976); and
- The credibility of the data published by the project's
sponsors ("Dishonesty With Diamonds," Times, June 16, 1976).
.
Radio and Television: The Diamond Lanes were also a popular
subject for radio and television coverage, and provided a platform
for many public figures seeking public exposure. As in the case of
the press, the general tenor of the coverage provided by local and
national radio and television stations was hostile to the project,
with a few pleas for patience interspersed among many demands for
termination. Perhaps the most hostile and least balanced of all
media coverage was provided by the radio disc jockeys and traffic
reporters, whose jibes ("you'll get home to-night if it takes all
year") reached motorists while they were in the middle of their
congested commuting period.
4.2.7 Community Reaction
Surveys, interviews, telephone calls, newspaper polls, public
hearings, and letters to newspaper editors occurring during and
after the project all revealed an overwhelmingly negative public
response to the Diamond Lanes. As has been noted, in the most
extensive survey undertaken, eighty-six percent of the corridor
drivers surveyed--including the majority of carpoolers--felt that
the Diamond Lanes were either harmful or of no benefit whatsoever.
But public response to the Diamond Lane project was not limited to
such formal avenues as survey responses and letters to editors.
Residents of Los Angeles managed to find unique ways of expressing
their general distaste for the Diamond Lanes. On opening days,
nails were spilled in the lane by a disconsolate motorist, and a
"baggy bomber" used paint-filled balloons to obliterate several of
the painted diamonds in the lane. On June 3, the "Citizens Against
the Diamond Lane" slowed Diamond Lane users by staging a mock
funeral procession in the lanes, and they later
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attempted to hang anti-project signs from a freeway overpass. A
smaller, less vocal group of "Citizens for the Diamond Lanes" was
organized and developed a newsletter to champion their cause.
Entrepreneurs sold bumper stickers and badges carrying comments on
the lanes, while college students offered their services as riders
for a fee to drivers wishing to qualify as carpoolers, and the
media reported a brisk sale of mannequins designed to gull
observers into believing one driver and two dummies constituted a
three-person carpool.
All of the anti-Diamond Lane activities were reported by the media,
which helped to create and sustain the climate of negative public
opinion. lt is impossible to know whether the public outcry was
generated by the negative public image, or whether the media image
simply reflected public outrage. Whichever came first, both the
public and the media were in full cry early in the project, and
each supported the other as the attack on the lanes progressed.
Any attempt to lay the full blame for the, hostile climate of
public opinion on the media both over simplifies and overstates the
case. It is unlikely that the negative media reports alone could
have generated such a hostile response if the report were not
reinforced by a negative impact on the lives of the public. In
writing on the relationship of the media and public opinion at the
time of the Diamond Lane experiment, Washington columnist Joseph
Kraft observed that:
"One of the few things we know about public opinion is that it
grows from experience. People develop views when something
happens to them. The more acute the happening--the more it
makes us pay in money or blood--the more strongly held the
view...
"Public opinion is the sum total of all (their) experiences.
Things read in the paper or seen on television only form a
part of the total. But a part that is dim unless reinforced
by experience."
In Los Angeles, the negative media image of the Diamond Lanes
was reinforced daily for over 100,000 freeway users who found their
daily commute trip lengthened by a project designed to benefit a
perceptibly smaller proportion of the traveling public.
.
4.2.8 Monitoring and Evaluation
At the time the Santa Monica Diamond Lanes were implemented,
the dedication of an existing freeway lane to high-occupancy
traffic was a controversial measure with equally controversial
impacts, of interest not only in Los Angeles but throughout the
United States. To ensure that the full range of these impacts
would be measured and evaluated with a high degree of statistical
precision, the federal Urban Mass Transportation Administration
(UMTA), acting
A-4-12
through the Transportation Systems Center (TSC), sponsored a
detailed evaluation of the Diamond Lane project as part of its
Service and Methods Demonstration (SMD) Program. To accomplish
this evaluation, TSC hired an independent contractor, SYSTAN, Inc.
of Los Altos, California.
Evaluation Plan. Prior to the Diamond Lane demonstration,
SYSTAN prepared a detailed evaluation plan (SYSTAN, November, 1976)
designed to address the key issues, surrounding the demonstration
and to provide a quantitative assessment of the full range of
project impacts involving such critical elements as traffic speeds,
carpool formation, travel delays, transit ridership, accidents,
violations, enforcement, air quality, public attitudes, and media
coverage. The plan defined the variables that best characterized
these elements, identified factors which might mitigate or amplify
the anticipated demonstration impacts, specified the instruments to
be used in collecting data, described the populations to be
measured, identified statistical tests and analytic procedures,
scheduled measurement and analysis activities to coincide with
demonstration activities, described potential threats to the
validity of demonstration findings, and suggested methods for
increasing the transferability of results to other areas.
Evaluation Monitoring: Prior to the project and in the early
stages of the Diamond Lane demonstration, the evaluation generally
followed the detailed evaluation plan. As the demonstration
progressed, adjustments in the basic plan were made to focus on
questions of interest, make the best use of available personnel,
respond to the need for operational decisions and public
information, and capture perishable data as a hedge against the
possibility that the project might be closed without warning. The
sudden closing of the project interrupted the evaluation in
midstream and necessitated a number of significant changes in the
structure of the evaluation plan. One such change entailed the
collection and analysis of an extensive body of data following
project termination to document any lasting changes in carpool use
and bus ridership, and to shed additional light on the nature and
source of impacts recorded during the demonstration.
Final Report: Under the evaluation plan, data collection
responsibilities were divided among the many local agencies
responsible for implementing the project itself. Once the field
data were collected, SYSTAN undertook an independent review and
analysis of all data elements, assessed the validity and
applicability of the data, developed independent summaries,
performed the statistical tests and comparisons specified in the
evaluation plan , analyzed the results of these comparisons, and
prepared an extensive, two-volume final report (Billheimer,
Builemer, and Fratessa, September 1977). The report findings were
subsequently summarized in Transportation Research Record 663 of
the Transportation Research Board.
4.2.9 Observations and Implications
To suggest that the Santa Monica Diamond Lanes might have been
salvaged with a better marketing plan is like saying that the
Titanic might have survived if its deck chairs had been painted
differently. The marketing approach, a well-planned public
information program, could not withstand the media outcry which was
fueled by the project's technical shortcomings. While the Diamond
Lanes succeeded to some degree in attracting riders to carpools and
transit, they brought about a significant increase in freeway
accidents, non-carpoolers lost far more time than carpoolers
gained, and the negative public reaction stalled the implementation
of other preferential treatment projects in Southern California.
A-4-13
.
The implications of Lane Conversion: Whereas other preferential
lane projects have constructed additional lanes or converted lanes
in off-peak directions to preferential use, the Santa Monica
Freeway Diamond Lane project marked the first time preferential
lanes were, created by taking busy freeway lanes out of existing
service and dedicating them to the exclusive use of high-occupancy
vehicles. This aspect of the project contributed to most of the
negative impacts recorded during the demonstration. The removal of
two lanes from general use contributed heavily to the congestion
and confusion on opening day, was a slight but important factor in
the increased accident rate, and appears to have been one of the
chief sources of public dissatisfaction with the project. Many
freeway users felt strongly that they had paid for the lanes with
their gasoline taxes and were entitled to go on using them. The
lane redemption and the resulting slowdown were viewed with
hostility by most corridor drivers, who appeared to perceive the
preemption as a plot to force individuals out of their own cars, a
plot designed by meddling bureaucrats to inconvenience many for the
sake of a few. Moreover, the number of project beneficiaries were
perceived to be even fewer than their numbers indicated because
they traveled three-to-a-car, or rode in buses that were often half
empty, and did not fill the Diamond Lane to capacity.
Los Angeles vs. the Rest of the world. Several aspects of the
Los Angeles area and the Santa Monica Freeway itself served to
amplify and modify the effects of the Diamond Lanes. For the
benefit of decisionmakers attempting to translate the Santa Monica
Freeway experience in terms of their own geographic areas, the most
important of these aspects-are:
- Geographic Sprawl. Because of the scattering of trip
origins and destinations throughout Los Angeles,
relatively few users of the Santa Monica Freeway were
destined for the CBD. The lack of a focal point for trip
destinations made carpool formation relatively difficult,
decreased the pool of potential riders of the CBD
directed bus service, and meant that drivers were likely
to want to enter and leave the Diamond Lanes at points
all along their 12.5-mile length, greatly increasing the
possibility of accidents.
- Auto mobile Dependence and the Mystique Automobile. As a
result of the geographic sprawl of the City, Los Angeles
residents generally travel further and are more dependent
on their automobiles than residents of other U.S. cities.
- High Incomes. Many of the most influential persons in the
city lived in the project area, resented any restrictions
on automobile use, and had the political influence to
guarantee a hearing for that resentment.
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- Fragmentation of Government Authority: Los Angeles'
fragmentation of public power and authority meant that a
large number of government agencies and elected officials
had some purview over the Diamond Lane project, and the
degree of involvement and commitment to the Diamond Lanes
varied greatly from agency to agency. In the glare of
the media spotlight, some agency heads turned hostile to
the project.
- Ramp Metering: Prior to the project, the ramp meters on
the Santa Monica Freeway had so improved freeway traffic
speeds that the Diamond Lanes suffered somewhat by
comparison. Where available, moreover, carpool bypass
lanes on the on-ramps offered more of a time savings to
carpools than the Diamond Lanes themselves. Thus, the
ramp meter bypasses which were safer and, surveys showed,
less objectionable to the public than the Diamond Lanes,
actually provided a greater incentive to carpooling than
the preferential freeway lanes, while the meters
themselves improved freeway traffic flow.
Planning and Implementation Suggestions: The following list
of suggestions for planning, marketing and implementing
preferential lane projects was compiled from a variety of observers
and participants in the wake of the Diamond Lane demonstration, and
published in SYSTAN's project evaluation report (Billheimer, et
al., 1977). These guidelines are hardy comprehensive nor were they
intended as a compendium of implied project shortcomings. As noted
in the evaluation report, "Many of the items listed were tried
successfully in Los Angeles, while others were not tried at all;
some might have been done better, while others were done as well as
possible; some might have helped the project while others, given
the particular set of circumstances surrounding the Santa Monica
Freeway, might not have helped at all."
Early Planning Suggestions:
- Identify all potentially adverse effects In advance: Any
major new transportation measure, particularly a measure
that attempts to strike a balance between incentives and
disincentives, will have a negative impact on some
portion of the population. Both positive and negative
impacts should be assessed and documented in advance, the
gainers and losers should be identified, and negative
impacts should be, dealt with insofar as possible.
- Publicize both positive and negative impacts In advance:
A Policy Background paper prepared by the American
Institute of Planners, prepared following the Santa
Monica experience, suggested that "Until experience with
and acceptance of preferential lane facilities is much
more established, all projects should be preceded by a
full statement of environmental (including energy)
impacts. This, in turn, should be given wide public
exposure, before project decisions are finalized."
(American Institute of Planners, 1976)
- Include all affected public agencies and officials in the
planning process. Bridges should be built in advance
between all agencies and officials with responsibility
for transportation or for the interests of the public
affected by the proposed project. All should have an
opportunity to participate, and procedural agreements
should be ratified and recorded.
- Involve the public in the planning process. Public
involvement in critical decisions is a responsibility
shared by participating agencies, elected officials and
the media. The opportunity exists to inform the planning
process with public input through elected officials,
public hearings, citizen committees, forums, etc. and to
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keep the public apprise d of project developments through
informative press releases, project newsletters and other
forms of communication.
- Involve the planners in the public process: Planners and
public agencies should be responsive to public input
during the planning stages, either by altering plans to
reflect responsible criticism, or by explaining to the
public why plans were not altered. In addition, all
planners should be made to drive the length of the
corridor before and during all preferential treatment
projects. It not only gives them a street level
understanding of the project, but also avoids
embarrassment when public officials inquire, with the
media watching, "whether anyone responsible for the
project has ever driven it?"
Pre-implementation suggestions:
- Establish and communicate standards for project
performance. The planners' hopes for the project should
be communicated and, in cases where perceived
disincentives are involved, at least two sets of
standards should be established and publicized in
advance. One set of standards should reflect
conservatively-set criteria for aborting the project at
any stage in its development, while another set should
reflect the long-term criteria for judging project
success. While it is instructive to measure short-term
occurrences against long-term hopes, there is no reason
to expect that long-term goals will be met early in the
project, and the failure to meet such goals before the
paint has dried on the pavement should not be held as due
cause for pillorying project participants. On the other
hand, a different set of ongoing standards capable of
triggering project termination needs to be set to ensure
that some unforeseen negative by-product of the project,
such as increased accident levels, does not grow so large
in the short-term as to outweigh any possible long-term
benefits.
- Develop a detailed evaluation plan and follow it. A
structured statistical plan for measuring project impacts
should be developed in advance, identifying precisely
what is to be measured, what comparisons are to be made,
and what statistical procedures are to be used to
validate the comparisons. Preliminary data should be
collected in accordance with this plan and summarized in
advance to provide a comprehensive record of "before"
conditions.
- Publicize all aspects of the project in advance at
appropriate levels. The public at large needs to know
when the project will be introduced, why it has been
decided to introduce it now, and what the long-term hopes
for the project are. The corridor driver needs to know
not only when a preferential lane will be introduced, but
what traffic engineering changes will accompany the lane,
in the form of signal adjustments, detours, and access
ramp changes.
- Provide a lightning rod for public response. On
controversial projects, a central telephone center should
be established shortly in advance of implementation to
supply information sample public opinion, record
suggestions, and provide an outlet for public
indignation.
Implementation Suggestions:
- Establish a focal point for information dissemination:
Project information should be distributed to the press
through a single outlet, on a schedule set by the
participating agencies that allows data to be assimilated
and evaluated before it is released.
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- Let the demonstration run Its course: So long as project
standards capable of triggering project termination are
not exceeded, the demonstration should be allowed to
continue until its allotted time is up, and the intention
to persevere should be conveyed to the public. A project
whose life is continually being threatened and that is
treated as tentative by participants cannot be expected
to generate as many long-term commitments to carpooling
and bus riding as a project that is guaranteed to be
around for a specified period before being junked,
modified, or accorded permanent status.
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A-5 CASE STUDY: THE SAN FRANCISCO-OAKLAND BAY BRIDGE
5.1 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
5.1.1 Location and Design
The Bay Bridge between San Francisco and Oakland features one
of the oldest and most successful preferential carpool lanes in the
U.S. The bridge has two roadway decks, each of which carry five
traffic lanes. Tolls are collected only in the westbound direction
at a toll plaza located a half mile east of the bridge's upper
deck. On December 8, 1971 two lanes of the seventeen toll lanes
approaching the westbound bridge deck were taken from general use
and reserved for carpools with three or more occupants. A
schematic of the initial lane configuration appears in Exhibit 5.1.
At the time of their opening, the toll-free HOV lanes saved
carpoolers between four and five minutes of waiting time, as well
as the 500 toll assessed of non-carpoolers.
The initial design of the Bay Bridge HOV lanes has undergone
significant changes since they were introduced. The placement of
the HOV lanes in the center of the seventeen-lane configuration
allowed violators to enter from either side and made enforcement
difficult. In addition, the fact that the HOV lanes extended onto
the bridge itself meant that the five westbound bridge lanes were
not fully utilized when HOV volumes were low. During the early
experimental phase, this problem of under-utilization was "solved"
after a fashion by violators who passed legitimately through the
non-carpool toll booths, paid their 500 toll, and then crossed
plastic stanchions to fill the available space in the HOV lanes and
avoid waiting in the merging bridge queues. Violation rates during
the early experimental period ranged as high as 30% of the vehicles
using the lane.
To solve the violation problem and restore bridge use to full
capacity, an early report on the priority lane experiment,
(MacCalden and Davis, Ap(il, 1973) recommended that a metering
system be installed across each of the seventeen access lanes
beyond the toll booths. This metering system allowed the bridge to
carry the maximum number of vehicles without delaying carpoolers.
It also simplified enforcement, which no longer required that
officers pursue violators onto the bridge itself. In a subsequent
improvement, the HOV lanes were moved from the center to the left-
most lanes, so that officers could enforce easily by waving
violators into a coned-off area beyond the toll booth without
disturbing mixed-flow traffic.
The current bridge approach contains twenty-two lanes. Three
of these lanes (Lanes number 1, 21, and 22) are dedicated to HOV
use and save carpoolers an estimated ten minutes of waiting time
during the morning peak, as well as the $1.00 toll collected in
other lanes. The lanes operate between 5 a.m. and 10 a.m., and
between 3 p.m. and 6 p.m.
5.1.2 Scheduling
Exhibit 5.2 presents a chronological history of key events in
the life of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge HOV lanes.
Roughly twenty months before the carpool lanes were created, a
single lane was dedicated to exclusive bus use. Metering was
introduced in March, 1974, two years and three months after the
carpool lanes opened.
5.1.3 Utilization
Exhibit 5.2 also traces the number of three-plus carpools
using the Bay Bridge during the peak westbound commute hours
between 6 a.m. and 9 a.m. Prior to the opening of the HOV
A-5-1
.
A-5-2
EXHIBIT 5.2
CHRONOLOGY OF SAN FRANCISCO-OAKLAND
BAY BRIDGE HOV LANES
NUMBER OF
3+ CARP0OLS
WESTB0UND
DATE EVENT 6A.M. to 9A.M.*
April 15, 1970: One lane opened to buses only;
50› toll for all autos 1140
December 8, 1971: Two lanes (lanes 9 and 10)
opened to 3+ carpools
(6-9 a.m.); no toll 2280
May 1, 1972: $1.00 per month charge
for carpools with ID card 2050
March 12, 1974: Metering operational NA
July 1, 1914: AC Transit strike begins 4400
September 2, 1974: AC Transit strike ends 2220
September 18, 1974: BART begins Transbay Service 1800
March 1, 1975: No toll for carpools; hours
extended to 6-9 p.m. and 3-6 p.m. 2040
July 1, 1977: Toll for non-carpools raised to 75› NA
February 11, 1982: Two additional carpool lane
opened. Lanes 9, 10, 18,
and 19 reserved for 3+ HOVs 5316
July 19, 1983: Carpool lanes reduced to
three (lanes 1, 18, 19) 6355
September 7, 1988: HOV morning hours extended
to 5-10 a.m. 6644
January 1, 1989: Toll for non-carpools raised
to $1.00 NA
April, 1989: Violation fine increased to $200 6955
October 18, 1989: Bridge closed due to Loma
Prieta Earthquake -
November 12, 1989: Bridge reopens, four lanes
(1, 2, 20, 21) designated for
HOV use 6260
June 1, 1992: Violation fine raised to $275 6151
May 6,1993: Three lanes (1, 21, 22)
designated for 3+ HOV use 5360
*Counts taken between indicated event dates.
A-5-3
lanes, counts showed only I 100 carpools using the bridge during
this period. After the introduction of the HOV lanes, the number
of carpools initially doubled, jumped to 4400 during the 1974 AC
Transit strike and rose to nearly 7000 just prior to the Loma
Prieta earthquake in October, 1989, which shut the bridge down for
a month.
The most recent traffic counts on the bridge (May 6, 1993)
tallied 5360 carpools during the 6 a.m.-9 a.m. time period. This
represented an auto occupancy rate of 1.83 persons per vehicle, an
increase of 38% over the rate 1.33 measured prior to the
introduction of the HOV lanes. During the peak morning commute
hour (7 a.m. to 8 a.m.) the carpool lanes carded 56.6% of the
people crossing the bridge in only one-quarter of the vehicles.
Even though the time savings offered by the Bay Bridge HOV
lanes are consistently higher than those available from other
California HOV projects, the ease and frequency of enforcement have
kept violation rates low. A 1981 study (Billheimer, et al., 1981)
found that the project had the lowest Violation rate (5.4%) of any
mainline HOV project in the state.
5.2 MARKETING
5.2.1 Overview
Although the San Francisco Bay Bridge HOV lanes are easily the
most successful carpool lanes in California, the project has
received very little marketing support. At the time the lanes
were introduced, bridge handouts announced the project and advance
warning signs on the bridge crossings warned drivers that*
CARPOOL LANE BEGINS
1500 FEET
and
3 OR MORE PER CAR
1000 FEET
In subsequent years, the bridge lanes have been included in
promotional materials prepared by RIDES for Bay Area Commuters,
which provides referral services for Bay Area residents seeking
ridesharing assistance, and in the Year 2005 HOV Lane Master Plan
prepared by CALTRANS, the CHP, and the Metropolitan Transportation
Commission (MTC). However, no marketing activities are dedicated
to the promotion of the lanes themselves.
____________________________
* The original signs read simply "CARPOOL LANE AHEAD" and "3 OR
MORE PER CAR AHEAD," and were changed at the suggestion of the CHP
to "CARPOOL LANE BEGINS 1500 FEET" and "3 OR MORE PER CAR 1000
FEET" to leave no doubt in drivers minds where the carpool lane
began.
A-5-4
5.2..2 Market Research
No market research preceded the opening of the lanes. A
feasibility study undertaken by the Department of Public Works and
Dr. Adolf May of the University of California at Berkeley focused
on technical issues and concluded by April, 1971 that it was in the
public interest to provide a field test of the priority lane
concept in the westbound direction.
5.2.3 Campaign Strategy
The Marketing Strategy in support of the San Francisco Bay
Bridge HOV lanes has simply been to inform the public that the
lanes were coming and to remind drivers from time to time that the
lanes exist.
5.2.4 Marketing Materials
Initial Announcement: On November 18, 1971, drivers using the
Bay Bridge were informed of the upcoming priority lane experiment
through the use of handouts at the toll booths. A card was also
included (see Exhibit 5.3) to be filled out by anyone interested in
forming carpools. The information on the returned cards was
processed and lists of potential carpoolers were developed and
distributed to commuters traveling between the same zip code areas.
Ongoing Marketing: Over the years, the Bay Bridge HOV lanes
have been included in marketing publications of RIDES for Bay Area
Commuters, although they tend to be lumped anonymously with other
HOV bridge lanes. RIDES' "Bay Area Commuters Survival Guide,"for
example, notes that "Many diamond lanes are toll-free on bridges."
and the joint MTC/CALTRANS/CHP brochure entitled "Year 2005 HOV
Lane Master Plan" contains a map showing the Bay Bridge and other
Bay Area HOV lanes, along with the observation that "...for
motorists who cross the Bay during their commute, both time and
money can be saved at the toll booth, since five of the toll
bridges in the region allow carpoolers to drive by without paying
during peak hours."
Word of Mouth: One aspect of Bay Bridge carpooling which has
grown enormously without benefit of any formal marketing is the
casual carpooling phenomena. Every weekday morning, from 5,000 to
8,000 commuters form "casual car pools," in which drivers meet
passengers at BART and AC Transit Stations to form spontaneous
carpools whose make-up changes daily. Passengers are generally
dropped off near the transbay bus terminal in San, Francisco, where
all AC Transit buses terminate. The incidence of casual carpooling
increased steadily through word of mouth and observation until the
Loma Prieta earthquake disrupted all Bay Bridge traffic for a month
in October 1989. When the Bridge was reopened in December, casual
carpooling had dropped significantly. Although commute patterns
eventually reestablished themselves, the numbers of carpools,
casual or otherwise, crossing the bridge have not yet reached their
pre-earthquake peaks.
5.2.5 Constituency Building
Although Interagency cooperation has been effective in dealing
with specific issues, formal efforts to build a constituency for
the carpool lanes on the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge are
difficult to identify. CALTRANS worked closely with the Department
of Public Works Division of Bay Toll Crossings to study the
feasibility of the lanes and install them. The CHP has cooperated
in enforcing the lanes and has made several useful suggestions
regarding signing and lane configuration. RIDES and MTC have
helped to publicize the time and money to be saved in using the
lanes.
A-5-5
EXHIBIT 5.3
HANDOUT PRIOR TO OPENING
OF
SAN FRANCISCO BAY BRIDGE HOV LANES
DIVISION OF BAY TOLL CROSSINGS
JOIN A CAR POOL AND USE THE BAY BRIDGE PRIORITY LANES!!!
In the near future, cars with three or more occupants
will have a priority lane for more than a mile though the
toll plaza and up onto tile bridge.
If you fill in the information below and mail this
card, you will receive a list of neighboring commuters,
to help you form or join a car pool - for daily
Transportation or for an emergency such as a smog alert.
NAME________________________________HOME TELEPHONE NO________
HOME ADDRESS_________________________________________________
CITY__________________________________ZIP CODE_______________
BUSINESS ADDRESS_____________________________________________
CITY__________________________________ZIP CODE_______________
You leave for work _________________AM
from work___________________PM NO POSTAGE NECESSARY
A-5-6
While generally supporting the Bay Bridge HOV lanes, the two
transit agencies most affected by casual carpooling, AC Transit and
BART, point out that this phenomenon has created some problems for
their operations. In 1987, AC Transit estimated that casual
carpooling cost them $900,000 annually in lost fares. In response
to the one-way direction of the casual carpool, AC Transit runs
approximately 40 fewer buses westbound in the morning and has
created a differential fare designed to discourage casual
carpooling, charging $2.00 for the ride into San Francisco and
$2.50 for the return trip.
BART points out that casual carpooling co-opts parking spaces meant
for round-trip rail patrons. To combat this, they implemented a
restricted parking program at their Orinda and Lafayette stations
that requires patrons to enter the paid area of BART stations and
drop free tokens in a slot corresponding to their parking stall
numbers. While this program reportedly reduced the number of
casual carpoolers parking in BART's Orinda lot, a significant
number of casual carpools continue to form at that station
(Beroldo, 1990).
5.2.6 Media Relations
The HOV lanes on the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge receive
relatively little media attention and have generated almost no
controversy. They are widely accepted and treated as a fact of
life in the Bay Area, and proposals to extend HOV lanes to other
Bay Area Bridges met with relatively little opposition. Newspaper
coverage tends to be either positive or humorous, sometimes both at
once. An editorial cartoon from the early 1980's tweaked the
Bridge Authority for its changing and variegated toll schedule (see
Exhibit 5.4) while an article from the "Phantom
.
A-5-7
Commuter" during the same period described a reporter's attempts to
pass off two armless and legless mannequins vs. carpoolers.
Although this reporter was not caught, the article took pains to
point out that the use of the HOV lane had been increasing ever
since CALTRANS allowed free passage for carpoolers, and that the
lanes, "...an effective way to encourage East Bay residents to
share rides... can cut commute times between five and fifteen
minutes a day."
5.2.8 Community Reaction
Like press coverage, community reaction to the San Francisco-
Oakland Bay Bridge HOV lanes has generally been positive.
Early Reaction: The initial report on the "Priority Lane
Experiment on the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge" (MacCalden and
Davis, 1973) characterized public reaction as follows:
"Public reaction toward the priority lane concept
generally tended to be favorable when measured by letters
and telephone calls received by the Division of Bay Toll
Crossings. Those indicating a favorable reaction either
felt that they had personally experienced a reduction in
travel time, or they endorsed a public policy which they
believed promoted the more efficient use of existing
highway facilities. Those opposed to the priority lane
either felt that there were inequities in terms of: a)
reduced tolls to car pools, b) some sports cars and
motorcycles are not designed to carry three or more
occupants, c) their individual travel patterns did not
allow for use of the car pool mode, or d) they objected
to the number of violators who took advantage of the
system while they must remain in queue obeying the rules.
About 30 percent of the vehicles in the priority lane
enter it illegally."
The violation problem was subsequently cleared up when
metering was installed and the lanes were repositioned for easier
enforcement. A 1987 report on enforcement levels on California HOV
Lanes (Billheimer, et al., 1981) found the Bay Bridge Violation
rate to be 5.4%, the lowest of any project surveyed.
Ongoing Reaction: Public response to the Bay Bridge HOV lanes
continues to be positive. In the 1981 study cited above, only 20%
of bridge commuters disagreed with the statement "more special
freeway lanes are needed for carpoolers." This was the lowest
percentage recorded for any of the 13 projects surveyed. By way of
contrast, in the same nearly 60% of all drivers (including 37% of
all carpoolers) using nearby Alameda 580 disagreed with the need
for more carpool lanes." In a subsequent survey of Bay Area HOV
lane users sponsored by MTC (Billheimer, 1990), 91.6% of the
carpoolers on the Bay Bridge said they felt their carpool lanes
helped to improve traffic flow. This was the highest percentage
recorded for any Bay Area HOV lane.
5.2.9 Monitoring and Evaluation
In their first years of operation, the Bay Bridge HOV lanes
were closely monitored by CALTRANS and the Division of Bay Toll
Crossings (BTC), and detailed reports were issued in 1973 by BTC
and in 1976 by CALTRANS. The authors of the first report
(MacCalden and Davis, 1973) were particularly sensitive to the
public reaction because, they wrote, they were "...not
_________________________
*The controversial carpool lanes on Alameda 580 were subsequently
opened to all traffic.
A-5-8
aware of any previous field tests where lanes formerly carrying
peak direction traffic have been reallocated for the exclusive use
of high occupancy vehicles such as buses and carpools."
In the twenty-two years since their opening, preferential
lanes have been added to the other bridges in the Bay Area and the
original Bay Bridge lanes have been taken for granted both by the
general public and by the bridge operators. CALTRANS continues to
monitor occupancy rates on the Bridge roughly once each year, but
few comprehensive studies have reviewed or summarized the results
of these counts. HOV activities on the bridge have been included
in a few research studies with a broader focus, notably a 1981
enforcement study (TSM Project Violation Rates," Billheimer et al.,
1981), a 1988 review of "The Effectiveness of High-Occupancy
Vehicle Facilities" by the Institute of Transportation Engineers
(ITE, 1988), and a 1989 survey of HOV lane users (Billheimer,
1990). The Bay Bridge has recently received FHWA approval for a
congestion pricing experiment which will focus attention on the
attitudes and price sensitivity of carpoolers and other commuters.
An extensive evaluation is expected to accompany this experiment.
5.2.10 General Marketing Observations
With a minimal amount of marketing, the HOV lanes on the San
Francisco Bay Bridge, have become one of the most successful
preferential lane projects in the country. The number of three-
person carpools crossing the bridge has increased more than five-
fold since the lanes were opened in December 1971. Even though the
lanes were created by converting mixed-flow lanes, they have
remained free of controversy and enjoy one of the lowest violation
rates among California's preferential lane projects. The addition
of metering in March 1974 made the lanes easy to enforce, and
ensured that the bridge would be used to its fullest capacity.
Moreover, because the metering system controlled the rate of flow
onto the bridge, the total delay for all vehicles remained the
same, guaranteeing that the time lost by non-carpoolers would
exactly equal the time saved by carpool vehicles.
The lesson of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge priority
lanes would seem to be that if you've got a good project, one that
is safe, easily enforced, allows the facility to operate at 100%
capacity, and saves carpoolers significant amounts of time without
costing non-carpoolers more time than carpoolers save, then you may
not need much formal marketing.
A-5-9
A-6 CASE STUDY: DULLES TOLL ROAD
6.1 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
6.1.1 Locations
The Dulles Toll Road stretches twelve miles from the Dulles
International Airport to Tysons Corner, Virginia, paralleling the
Dulles Airport Access Road and providing Northern Virginia
residents of Loudoun and Fairfax Counties access to the I-495
Capital Beltway and I-66 to Washington, D.C. (see Exhibit 6.1). In
1989, the Virginia General Assembly unanimously passed SB 808,
which allowed one new lane to be added to the two existing toll
road lanes in each direction and mandated that the additional lanes
be designed as HOV lanes. After a lengthy construction period, the
lanes were scheduled to open September 2, 1992, the day after Labor
day. The lanes were reserved for buses and carpools with three or
more occupants between 6:30 and 9:00 in the morning and 4:00 and
6:30 in the evening. A set of temporary park-and-ride lots were
scheduled to open in support of the new HOV lanes, with more
extensive, permanent facilities planned for the future.
6.1.2 Scheduling
Premature Opening: A six-mile section of the new, roadway was
completed in ocib6er 1991, nearly one year in advance of the
projected HOV-lane opening date. At the time, the toll road-was
carrying 76,000 vehicles daily, well in excess of the planned
capacity of 47,000 vehicles. In the face of existing congestion,
Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) officials considered
their options and decided to open the newly completed six-mile
stretch of road to all traffic. A similar decision was made when
the final six-mile section of toll road was completed the following
July. The opening of 12 miles of new lanes to all traffic relieved
congestion on the toll road and made commuters happy, but it left
VDOT faced with the prospect of shoehorning three lanes of traffic
back into two lanes when HOV restrictions were imposed following
Labor day.
Political Opposition: by early August, opposition to the
opening of the Dulles Toll Road HOV lanes began to manifest itself.
Opposition was led by U.S. Representative Frank Wolf, a Republican
representing Northern Virginia, who sent a series of letters to
Virginia Governor L. Douglas Wilder asking the Governor to delay
the implementation of HOV restrictions. Wolf argued that closing
one of the already-opened lanes to normal traffic would increase
congestion, causing more pollution and increasing the risk of
accidents. He also argued that the HOV lanes themselves would be
underutilized and difficult to enforce. Wolf also voiced the
opinion that restricting traffic on the Dulles Toll Road would be
unfair to drivers who pay to use the highway since it would be
"...the only toll-road in the nation-with HOV restrictions."
Wolf's opposition, announced at an August 3 press conference,
generated a heated debate in the local news media and led to the
formation of an anti-HOV group, the Citizens Against Dulles HOV
(CAD HOV). By the time the HOV restrictions were scheduled to be
implemented, the Supervising Boards of both Loudoun and Fairfax
Counties had voted in opposition to the HOV concept.
6.1.3 Utilization
In the midst of the controversy, VDOT stood firm in its
intention to introduce HOV-3 restrictions the day after Labor day.
On opening day, traffic tie-ups exceeded those experienced before
the new lanes were constructed, commute trips that had taken only a
half-hour before stretched to over an hour, the HOV lanes appeared
empty in comparison to the bumper-to-bumper congestion in adjacent
lanes, and the frustrations of thousands of non-carpoolers further
fueled the controversy.
A-6-1
.
A-6-2
Over the initial weeks of HOV lane operation, toll road
accidents increased and some noncarpoolers defected to the nearby
country roads, clogging them and causing toll road revenues to drop
from ten to 15 percent below normal. Travel time measurements by
VDOT showed that the twelve-mile trip in the congested mix-flow
lanes took anywhere from 14 to 46 minutes, while carpoolers could
rely upon a 15-minute trip at any time during the morning and
evening peak. VDOT reported that the number of vehicles in the
carpool lanes during the two-and-a-half hour morning commute
increased from 600 to 800 over the first month of operations.
6.1.4 Shutdown
The initial month of operations was marked by public argument
and political electioneering with VDOT adopting a "wait-and-see"
attitude as HOV lane usage increased, Representative Wolf calling
the traffic delays "a commuter's worst nightmare come true," and
CAD HOV assembling signatures on a petition attacking the lanes.
Near the end of September, Representative Wolf seized the
initiative by attaching an amendment to a federal transportation
appropriations bill banning HOV lanes on toll roads on federal
lands-a proviso that applied only to the Dulles Toll Road. When
the measure passed, Governor Wilder, a Democrat, preempted the
bill's impact by unilaterally lifting the HOV restrictions, at the
same time chiding Representative Wolf for interfering with State
decisions from his federal position. The lanes reverted to general
use on Monday, October 5, roughly one month after their
controversial implementation.
6.2 MARKETING
6.2.1 Overview
Shortly after the HOV lanes opened on the Dulles Toll Road,
the Washington Post published this analogy of the marketing
problems facing VDOT:
"Imagine you had this sales job: Your potential customer is a
commuter who spends too much time stuck in his car in creeping
traffic. Your product is a brand new $37 million lane of
traffic that could get the commuter to work perhaps twice as
fast But there is this catch: The commuter has to give up his
single-occupant car to which he has been habituated for years
and form a high-occupancy vehicle with two other people whom
he doesn't know.
If the commuter works late and misses his car pool, he W have
to figure out another way to get home. If he has to rush home
for an emergency midday, he'll have to hire and wait on a taxi
Just before you make your pitch for HOV, your customer gets to
test drive the new lane without any restrictions and happily
discovers that he can now get to work in 30 minutes instead of
an hour.
Finally, anti-HOV politicians remind him in a drumbeat of
statements that his 25- and 50-cent tolls paid for the now-
restricted lane.
Would you rather be selling motor tours of Bosnia?
As grim as it sounds, the above scenario is exactly what the
Virginia Department of Transportation encountered when &
brought HOV to the new third lane of the Dulles Toll Road on
September 1."
A-6-3
The Post concludes that VDOT "...faced such a daunting sales
job because all the players, public and private, failed to write a
better marketing program, even though they had plenty of time to
prepare-four years--and could have checked the handwriting on the
wall of an earlier HOV failure in Norfolk."
Objectives: The Post's reference to Norfolk (See Case Study
A-2) is particularly ironic, since at the same time the Dulles Toll
Road was opening to catcalls and commuter clamor, VDOT was
successfully marketing and introducing the follow-on HOV lanes to
the failed Route 44 project (See Case Study A-3). The Washington
DC setting was much different from Norfolk, however. Whereas Route
44 represented Norfolk's first introduction to HOV lanes, HOV lanes
had been operating in the Washington DC-area and Northern Virginia
for some time. The Shirley Highway is one of the oldest and most
successful HOV lanes in the country, and Dulles Toll Road
carpoolers destined for downtown in the District of Columbia could
avail themselves of the separated carpool lanes on I-66.
Consequently, VDOT's initial marketing objective for the Dulles
Toll Road Lanes was simply to advertise their coming. Key tasks
such as constituency building and public education were ignored,
presumably because the public was assumed to be familiar with, and
attuned to, the HOV concept.
Budget. Whereas a total of $52 million was spent to build the
Dulles Toll Road HOV Lanes and related improvements, the Washington
Post reported that "...only $12,000 was spent on public-private
efforts to get commuters to use the new lanes."
Key Concerns: As noted, VDOT's initial marketing efforts
focused on advertising the booming of the HOV lanes on the Dulles
Toll Road. When the lanes were opened temporarily to unrestricted
traffic, their concerns and problems expanded enormously. While
under siege, they had to find ways to respond to critics, mollify
politicians, and make non-carpoolers accept being shoehorned back
into two lanes when HOV restrictions were imposed. These weren't
easy tasks under the best of circumstances, and they were
undertaken under the worst of circumstances, in a short time frame
while under attack from politicians, the press, and the public.
In the words of the Washington Post."Everybody fell asleep on
the Dulles Toll Road, including HOV's most ardent supporters." By
the time they woke up, the best marketing campaign in the world
couldn't have saved the project.
6.2.2 Market Research
Roughly fifteen months before the Dulles Toll Road HOV lanes
were scheduled to open, VDOT handed out over 10,000 surveys to toll
road users. Some 3,677 motorists mailed back responses to the
survey. In reviewing these responses, VDOT found several positive
signs which they felt provided "...a solid base for-HOV growth in
the Dulles Corridor." These signs included the facts that:
- Seven percent of Toll Road users already met HOV-3
requirements, which could mean 300 fewer cars per hour on
conventional lanes on opening day;
- Another eight percent were carpooling with one person, so
that they only needed one additional person to qualify
for the HOV-3 lanes;
- Eight out of ten Toll Road users commuted more than ten
miles each way, while almost half drove over 20 miles, so
that the road was filled with the long trips conducive to
carpooling; and
- A relatively high proportion of Toll Road users were
aware of rideshare matching services.
The survey also contained a few warning signals. The 300
carpools per hour the HOV-3 lanes were guaranteed on opening day
(from pre-existing three person carpools) were not nearly enough to
overcome the empty lane syndrome. Also, the survey reported that
32% of all survey respondents said
A-6-4
HOV lanes were a good idea. When controversy developed prior to
the actual lane opening, opponents of the lane turned this finding
around, pointing out that 68% of the Toll Road users felt HOV lanes
were not a good idea.
6.2.3 Campaign Strategy
The initial campaign strategy focused narrowly on the need to
advertise the coming of, the HOV-3 lanes to corridor drivers. To
this end, VDOT:
- Constructed "Burma Shave" signs announcing the coming of
the lanes and singing the praises of carpooling;
- Placed extensive advertising on Metro buses;
- Prepared brochures announcing the lane opening and
showing the location of temporary carpool lots; and
- Planned elaborate opening day ceremonies.
Once the new lanes were opened to unrestricted traffic and
controversy developed, this initial strategy was overwhelmed by the
need for damage control.
6.2.4 Marketing Materials
Burma Shave Signs: A year before the HOV lanes were scheduled
to open, VDOT began installing a series of roadside signs carrying
punchy poetry similar to the old Burma Shave jingles to encourage
ridesharing and advertise the coming of the carpool lanes. Some of
the early signs were criticized as being too vague. One such
series carried the poem,
.
The last sign in the series carried the rideshare phone number 1-
800-745-POOL.
VDOT had received special permission from the FHWA to use this
unique approach. When controversy developed, however, the agency
was criticized in the press for using public funds to construct and
manage the signs.
A-6-5
After HOV restrictions had been rescinded on the Dulles Toll
Road, the signs carded a new set of messages, one of which read:
.
These signs aroused the wrath of the politicians who had
worked to remove HOV restrictions on the lanes, and they were soon
replaced by messages advertising a hotline to take congestion
relief suggestions from Toll Road users.
.
The hotline number, (703) 934-0704, followed. The line was open 24
hours a day and the suggestions by motorists were accumulated and
provided a newly formed advisory group deliberating the future of
the lanes.
Although the Burma Shave signs were publicly criticized on the
Dulles Toll Road, a similar approach on the Hampton Roads HOV Lanes
(see Case Study A-3) was well received by press and public alike.
Bus Advertising: VDOT also advertised the lanes extensively
on Metro buses.
Brochures: VDOT developed brochures advertising "Sane Lanes
Ahead on the Toll Road!" The brochures answered common questions,
provided information on temporary park-and-ride lots, and contained
a rideshare application. The brochures were to have been
distributed by the ridesharing offices in Fairfax and Loudoun
Counties. In the midst of controversy during the critical
marketing period just prior to the lanes' opening, however, the
Loudoun County Board of Supervisors forbade the county ridesharing
office to mail out the brochures.
Opening Day Ceremonies: In lieu of a ribbon-cutting, VDOT
held a "barrel bashing" ceremony to recognize the end of
construction and mark the official opening of the HOV lanes.
Attendees could consume hamburgers, hot dogs, wurst, and non-
alcoholic beer donated by local merchants and were given the chance
to take up a sledgehammer and bash one of the orange-and-white
construction barrels used during the construction process. The
party was well covered by the local media.
Another planned opening day giveaway was less successful. A
local restaurant had promised to hand out 7,000 blueberry muffins
to commuters passing through the Spring Hill Road Plaza on opening
day. At the last minute, the muffin distribution was canceled by
VDOT personnel and the State Police, who feared the distribution
might cause additional tie-ups and might not be well received by
drivers fed up with delays. The muffins were sent to homeless
shelters in Northern Virginia.
A-6-6
6. 2.5 Constituency Building
One of the most critical shortcomings in VDOT's marketing
efforts on the Dulles Toll Road was the failure to build
constituencies that could provide backing and support services for
the HOV lanes during the month of controversy that preceded their
opening. As Tom Grubisich, editor-in-chief of the Connection
newspapers in Fairfax County, pointed out in the Washington Post,
VDOT failed to
"...develop an early and comprehensive HOV strategy to educate
the general public or local and state political leaders. When
Rep. Frank R. Wolf (R-VA) made his first nonpublic rumbles
against HO V to the highway department, no official bothered
to hold his hand in an attempt to ease his constituent-
instigated apprehensions."
As has been noted, the Boards of Supervisors of both Fairfax and
Loudoun Counties passed resolutions against the lanes.
Another potential ally, the Metropolitan Washington Airports
Authority (MWAA), couldn't find land for a park-and-ride lot on
Route 28, even though MWAA had demanded and received $15 million
"layover" ramps so that the drivers leaving Dulles Airport at Route
7 in the morning wouldn't have to meld with HOV traffic.
Tytran, the consortium of employers at Tysons Corner, was
another natural marketing ally. Although the consortium sponsored
an HOV Conference for CEOs and top management for June 19, the
Washington Post noted that the organization "...went into
hibernation all summer instead of organizing a "guaranteed-ride-
home" program to ease the apprehensions of employees who hesitate
to join car pools because they don't want to get stranded when they
work late or have a midday emergency--the very fears cited by the
Tysons-employed paralegal who organized a highly visible anti-HOV
group."
MWAA operates the Dulles access road paralleling the Toll
Road. The access road, which is dedicated to airport users, flowed
freely in full view of the congested toll road back-ups every
morning and evening. k was suggested that the nearby presence of
the access road made drivers even angrier with the HOV
restrictions. One popular suggestion made on the hotline
established after the HOV restrictions were removed was to allow
commuting carpoolers to use the access road. The MWAA had vetoed
such a suggestion some years earlier.
6.2.6 Media Relations
One all-important constituency which VDOT failed to bring around to
its point of view was the media. During the two months of
controversy before and during HOV lane operations, newspaper
editorials were overwhelmingly opposed to the HOV option on the
Dulles Toll Roads. , Although not necessarily opposed to the HOV
concept, most editorial writers felt that the toll road was the
wrong time and the wrong place to apply the concept.
Two local traffic reporters joined the anti-HOV chorus. Andy
Parks of WMAL-AM and Jim Russ of WMZQ-AM and FM not only attacked
the concept on the air during drive time, but also wrote opposition
leader Representative Frank Wolf public letters opposing the Dulles
Toll Road HOV lanes. Russ expanded his attack to include the long-
time, successful HOV lanes on the Shirley Highway, saying
"Carpooling does not fit the busy lifestyles of so many Washington
area residents." Parks wrote the following to Wolf:
A-6-7
"I have watched the effects of HOV lanes from my
airplane on a daily basis for the past nine years. / ran
honestly say that the principle of HOV lanes is a good
one. But I also think that HOV is 'wishful thinking' by
highway officials. Frankly, the HOV lanes on I-95, 395
and 66 are as empty now as they were in 1985. I have
heard all the VDOT propaganda regarding the number of
people moved in HOV lanes versus conventional lanes.
Their figures are twisted and very deceiving... when I
have questioned survey techniques on specific numbers
while speaking with VDOT officials, they could never back
up their inflated statistics... Once again, the people of
Virginia would have millions of their tax dollars spent
on a project that would benefit a select few."
6.2.7 Community Reaction
As VDOT learned in its survey a year in advance of the HOV
lane opening, 68% of the toll road users were opposed to the toll
road from the outset. No poll was taken during the lane's
operations, but the newspapers were filled with tales of angry
motorists who claimed to experience long delays, see many
violators, narrowly avoid accidents, and who viewed the lanes as
"social engineering designed by bureaucrats for bureaucrats.
The controversy gave rise to an anti-HOV citizens group, the
Citizens Against Dulles HOV (CAD HOV), which produced orange-and-
black anti-HOV bumperstickers, circulated petitions protesting the
lanes, logged protest calls, generated press articles, and
challenged VDOT's figures on lane usage.
The editorial pages of local newspapers ran a balanced
sampling of articulate letters from residents on either side of the
HOV controversy. HOV critics argued that the non-carpoolers who
paid the fee to use the toll road had a right to use the entire
road. One public letter to Representative Frank Wolf skewered this
argument with the observation that
"..your 'fairness' argument can be made to other HOV
lanes, such as I-66 and I-95 (which I understand you
support), as well as to many public facilities that are
"off limits" to most taxpayers. By your logic, because
my taxes pay for military bases and salaries, I should be
able to walk into any PX in the country and buy groceries
and household items cheaper than at Giant. (I am also, by
that logic, entitled to ride the Space Shuttle for free.)
You should know better than to pander to commuters by
asserting the false logic that taxpayers may use any
facility paid for by public funds, simply because their
tax funds helped pay for it. We all know that is not the
way our system works."
6.2.8 Monitoring and Evaluation
The HOV lanes on the Dulles Toll Road were too short-lived to
produce any significant statistical conclusions regarding their
ability to generate new carpools. Activity in the carpool lane was
well monitored by VDOT (see Exhibit 6.2), although VDOT's figures
came under attack along with the lanes themselves. The head of CAD
HOV took exception to several of VDOT's lane-counting procedures
and noted "Asking VDOT to monitor the HOV lanes is like asking
Congress to evaluate itself."
A-6-8
.
A-6-9
Whenever HOV lanes come under attack, it is inevitable that
agency counts of HOV lane usage will also come under attack. VDOT
countered the attack by inviting the president of CAD HOV to join
their observers counting at the main toll plaza to take her own
counts. In publishing HOV lane usage, VDOT could have deflected
some criticism by separating Violators and carpoolers. By focusing
on total vehicle flow, the agency let itself be open to the charge
that the lane usage was artificially inflated. Since VDOT counted
occupancy rates at the same time they counted vehicles (violators
reportedly constituted less than 10% of HOV lane use) this would
have been an easy adjustment to make.
6.3 MARKETING LESSONS LEARNED
In reflecting on the Dulles Toll Road experience, Mary Ann
Reynolds, the VDOT spokeswoman responsible for press relations on
the project, agreed that the paramount public relations mistake was
opening the completed HOV lanes to all traffic while the finishing
touches were put on an HOV toll booth. As reported in the Fairfax
County Connection,
"Opening the lanes allowed traffic to flow smoothly and
made HOV vulnerable to the 'if it ain't broke, don't fix
it' attack from Congressman Frank Wolf and other
Republican politicians.
As a result, when lane restrictions were imposed, the HOV lanes
were seen as creating congestion rather than relieving it.
VDOT and FHWA offered the following advice to the HOV
marketer:
1. Know the market and refine the Opening the Toll Road
Lanes in advance seriously weakened the lanes changes of
success, but the lack of support facilities such as
permanent park-and-ride lots also contributed to the
lanes' demise.
2. Start selling early, six months to a year in advance of
opening day.
3. Seek out natural allies. Build constituency groups in
advance, particularly among politicians, community
leaders, and media representatives such as traffic
reporters and columnists.
4. Choose a unifying theme. All marketing materials should
be unified through a consistent logo or slogan. Giving
the project a name such as the Sane Lanes or the Smart
Lanes (anything but HOV lanes) makes marketing easier.
5. Time the opening carefully. Open the lanes when traffic
is relatively low, rather than during a high-traffic time
such as the day after Labor Day, when commuters are
adjusting to back-to-school traffic.
6. Avoid election years. Opening in September of an election
year guaranteed that politicians would seek headlines by
catering to single auto drivers; who represent far more
votes than carpoolers.
7. Stick with it. A project whose life is constantly
threatened isn't likely to attract many full time
commitments to carpooling.
In the end though, you have to have a credible product to
market. In the words of a Loudoun Times-Mirror editorial, "All the
high-powered public relations in the world can't overcome terrible
policy."
A-6-10
A-7 CASE STUDY: SEATTLE's I-5 SOUTH HOV PROJECT
7.1 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
7.1.0 Impetus
The Interstate 5 (I-5) Corridor is the major north-south
interstate running the entire length of Washington State. In the
Puget Sound region it bisects Seattle and serves as the major
roadway to and through the Metropolitan Seattle Area. The
following case study focuses on the I-5 South Corridor --- the
portion of I-5 to the south of Seattle between Southcenter and
Federal Way (see Exhibit 7.1).
The I-5 South HOV Project occurred in response to several
events. In February of 1990, Pierce Transit's Board of Directors
passed a resolution which requested the Washington State Department
of Transportation (WSDOT) to accelerate the opening of HOV lanes
between Tacoma and Seattle. This was to assure the success of
express transit service Pierce Transit had committed to begin
operating in September, 1990. In addition, during this period of
time a local group known as SHOVE (Southend High Occupancy Vehicle
Enthusiasts) gathered over 2,000 signatures from commuters who
wanted HOV lanes in South King County and North Pierce County.
This petition was presented to the state's Secretary of
Transportation, along with request for HOV lanes along the corridor
as soon as possible. In response, the State Transportation
Commission instructed the WSDOT to perform a study to determine
which sections of the corridor currently warranted HOV lanes.
After further deliberation, the Transportation Commission
directed the WSDOT to pursue a project in the I-5 South Corridor
that could be opened in the Summer of 1991. As a result of this
directive, the I-5 South HOV lanes were opened on August 28, 1991.
7.1.1 Location
As part of a region-wide effort to improve mobility for
commuters, the I-5 South Corridor has been programmed to
incorporate high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) facilities by the year
2000. HOV facilities are part of a 10-year, $200 million program
to upgrade and rehabilitate I-5 South, bringing the freeway up to
current design and safety standards. In 1991, WSDOT opened a HOV
lane on Northbound I-5 between South 272nd Street and South 200th
Street, and on Southbound I-5 between Klickitat Drive and State
Route 516. Each HOV lane runs 4.5 miles long and is adjacent to
the freeway general purpose lanes. When first opened only vehicles
carrying three or more persons were allowed to use the HOV lanes.
This designation was changed to two or more persons in 1993. The
lanes. are supported by park-and-ride lots and easily accessible
parking locations in downtown Seattle that offer discounted rates
to carpoolers.
7.1.2 Scheduling
HOV lanes along the I-5 South Corridor were being planned by
the WSDOT for opening in the late 1990s. In response to public
pressure, HOV lanes in both the northbound and southbound
directions were opened to traffic in the summer of 1991. The
accelerated construction of this temporary facility was the
Department of Transportation's short term response to direction
from the State Transportation Commission. Construction of the
inside HOV lanes north and southbound was staged to maintain 4
lanes of general purpose traffic in both directions. By narrowing
the existing 4 lanes from 12 feet to 11 feet and shrinking the
median from 10 feet to 4 feet general purpose traffic was not
negatively impacted through the addition of the HOV lane.
A-7-1
.
A-7-2
7.1.3 Utilization
Initially only vehicles carrying three or more persons were
allowed to use the HOV lanes. Peak period volume data indicated
that the HOV lanes in the South Corridor were being underused. A
preliminary study offered a number of reasons for this low
utilization. These reasons included: bottlenecking where HOV lanes
end and merge with general purpose lanes; and access to exit ramps
unavailable from HOV lanes. (see report "Evaluation of Seattle's
South I-5 Interim HOV Lanes" by Gary Farnsworth) To alleviate
bottlenecking, changes were made by- WSDOT. Rather than have the
HOV lane merge into the left general purpose lane, the right lane
was turned into an exit lane at the point where the HOV lane
converts to a general purpose lane. It was also concluded in this
evaluation that the amount of travel time savings provided by use
of the HOV lanes was insubstantial during peak hour travel time.
In addition, occupancy requirements for all HOV facilities in the
region (with the exception of the SR- 520 Westbound HOV lane) were
changed to a 2+ designation in mid-1993. An evaluation of the
occupancy and operations of the lane since the change in occupancy
designation has not been undertaken at this writing.
7.2 MARKETING
7.2.1 Overview
The marketing activities for the I-5 HOV Study were designed
to stimulate awareness and comments from a variety of target
markets associated with or having an interest in the study process
and its outcome. These markets included elected officials,
jurisdiction staff, employers, commuters, the media and the general
public. A unique characteristic of the project was the early
involvement of the general public in the process. A group of
citizens, organized as SHOVE (Southend High-Occupancy Vehicle
Enthusiasts), gathered more than 2000 signatures from commuters who
wanted HOV lanes in South King County and North Pierce County.
These signatures were sent to the Secretary of Transportation, the
State Transportation Commission and the chair of the Legislative
Transportation Committee. Leaders of SHOVE also testified before
members of the State Transportation Commission.
7.2.2 Market Research
Market research activities were utilized to support and guide
the marketing plan development. A telephone survey and executive
interviews were conducted as part of the market research activities
of this project.
Telephone Survey
The telephone survey reflected the attitudes and opinion of
819 randomly selected - residents of South King County and North
Pierce County. The data provided a baseline measure of attitudes
and opinions regarding HOV travel and treatments, and the potential
for converting people from single occupancy vehicles to HOVS.
The following emerged from the telephone survey:
. A large number of King and Pierce County residents were
highly frustrated with the level of traffic on I-5.
. A majority of King and Pierce County residents believed
HOV lanes are "fairly" or.. very effective" while few
have personally used HOV lanes in the past.
. Respondents were moderately interested in taking actions
to reduce traffic congestion. Actions which most
interested respondents were reading articles about
traffic congestion; taking the bus or using
carpools/vanpools and distributing
A-7-3
information to co-workers about ridesharing
opportunities. They were least interested in attending
meetings about ridesharing.
Executive Interviews
Executive interviews were conducted with 22 pre-selected
individuals. These individuals represented a mix of political,
neighborhood, and business representatives. The objectives of the
interviews were to: assess attitudes regarding a variety of HOV
treatments; identify opportunities for regional partnerships to
build community awareness and support. for this project.; identify
specific institutional/organizational concerns regarding this HOV
project; and obtain information about the communication challenges
foreseen by these individuals and in turn solicit assistance to
facilitate communication during the implementation phase.
The following emerged from the executive interviews:
. Speakers Bureau-: WSDOT officials in District One and
District Three should look for opportunities to talk
about the WSDOT's commitment to the HOV system.
. Concept Marketing: Activities associated with general HOV
marketing should be increased.
. Market Development Component: A component which allows
for the facilitation of employee transportation programs
which would enhance the usage of HOV treatments should be
considered.
. Program Partnerships: A strong partnership with transit
agencies and the media should be developed to strengthen
bonds between public agencies, the media and the general
public.
Overall communication recommendations that emerged from this
research included:
. Mount an early general pro-HOV campaign before scenarios
are introduced, emphasizing the strong local support by
community groups and its link to a long range regional
transportation program.
. The immediacy of the I-5 HOV improvements should be
repeatedly emphasized.
. Packaging materials as "traffic information" should be
considered as long as it emphasizes solutions and
improvements.
. Continue to provide accessible information to the general
public, as well as targeted groups, on a steady basis.
. To achieve broader participation, mechanisms should be
used which do not require a major time commitment, and
which emphasize a link between participation and personal
benefit to the individual.
. Communications should incorporate the following themes:
It works.
It makes public transportation cheaper and faster.
. Market segments for the project are as follows:
Travel Mode: Bus Riders, SOV, Carpool or Vanpool users
County of Residence: Pierce or King
Commute Destination: North Pierce County, South King
County, or Seattle/East of Lake Washington
A-7-4
7.2.3 Campaign strategy
An extensive education plan was developed to educate elected
officials and key jurisdictions about the role HOV facilities play
in providing mobility for the region. The education focus of the
plan included: a bus tour; a kick off briefing; ongoing media
relations and database management; the publication of a quarterly
newsletter; and jurisdictional briefings. In addition, to promote
the opening of this HOV segment a marketing plan was implemented
(plan outline, is attached). The marketing component included: the
development of a logo (see Exhibit 7.2);, transit advertising;
displays; special event participation; and the development of
promotional, materials including posters, brochures, buttons,
balloons and self-stick note pads all incorporating the logo for
the project.
.
Education Actions
Bus Tour: The purpose of the bus tour was to develop an
understanding of the project objectives and process among a variety
of elected officials and staff of public agencies affected by the
HOV facility. The tour, held on July 15, 1990, was attended by 47
participants. The tour route began in downtown Seattle and
traveled south along the I-5 corridor to the Lakewood park-and-ride
lot in South Pierce County, the southern terminus of the study
corridor. Information about HOV facilities in general, and
specific plans for HOV facilities along the corridor was presented.
A leader of SHOVE was also part of the tour, and spoke on behalf of
the organization.
Kick-Off Briefing: The purpose of the Kick-Off briefing was to
present and discuss the objectives and work tasks of the I-5 South
Interim HOV Study to WSDOT Headquarters, District One and District
Three staff. Because early understanding of the project was
considered essential given the fast-track timeline -- the
Transportation Commission had directed WSDOT to open ad HOV
facility in less than one years time -- the Kick-Off briefing set
the tone of partnership and cooperation which was carried out
throughout the entire project.
A-7-5
Media Relations: Throughout the project the study team
maintained contact with the media. Media relations activities
focused on maintaining a heightened awareness of the study process
and outcomes with targeted media representatives. This ongoing
relationship resulted in positive coverage on the study in local
newspapers.
Data Base Management: A database of public and private
agencies, organizations and businesses who participated in any of
the information gathering activities or who expressed interest in
the project was developed and maintained. In addition, a complete
database of all SHOVE members was maintained to facilitate the
distribution of study information and updates.
Newsletter: The project team published the I-5 HOV Study
Bulletin quarterly throughout the project. Each issue of the
newsletter was distributed via mail, at worksites and aboard
transit buses to nearly 15,000 people living or working within the
corridor. Bulletin articles included information on survey
results, the opening of the HOV lane, potential improvements and
general information about the ongoing process of the project.
Displays/Special Events: Project information was presented and
public comment solicited through displays at employment site
transportation fairs, and special community sponsored events.
Jurisdictional Briefings: Briefings were conducted with
elected officials and staff representing 18 local jurisdictions and
public organizations. A marketing goal of these briefing was to
persuade these jurisdiction to partner with the WSDOT in the
distribution of education and marketing materials. This partnering
was a successful and cost-effective strategy which resulted in
thousands of brochures and newsletters distributed at no
distribution cost to WSDOT.
Marketing Actions
A detailed marketing implementation plan is included at the
end of this case study. The following is a brief summary of the
activities undertaken as part of promoting the opening of the new
lanes.
Information Development: Information was developed which
announced the opening of the new HOV lane and encouraged recipients
to try an HOV mode. This information took a variety of forms, and
included, newsletter articles, brochures, posters, flyers, transit
advertising, buttons, post-a-notes and balloons.
Information Distribution: Promotional material was distributed
in a variety of ways, including on-board Metro and Pierce Transit
buses, at employment sites in King and Pierce. counties, to
residences through assistance from local jurisdictions and by
members of SHOVE.
Thank-You Ride: Two weeks after the opening of the new HOV
facility the chair of the Transportation Commission hosted a
special Thank-you ride" for the leader of SHOVE. The chair of the
commission rode with SHOVE leaders along the entire new corridor. -
Media representatives were also invited to provide them the
opportunity to talk to SHOVE leaders and the Commissioner.
Promotion: In addition to information distributions,
announcements about the pending opening were made aboard transit
coaches, and signs announcing the day of opening were posted along
the construction site.
Media Relations: Media relations activities included on-air
interviews, talk-show interviews and day-of-opening coverage.
Efforts were made by WSDOT to provide visibility for SHOVE as a
leader in working to get the lanes designed and opened.
A-7-6
7.2.4 Marketing Materials and Budget
A variety of materials were developed and distribute which
promoted the opening of the lanes and encouraged it's immediate
usage. These materials included:
Item Messages Distribution
What would you do . When the HOV lanes . Desktop by janit-
with 100 hours of were opening orial service at
free time? . Rules and enforcement targeted worksites
Brochure . Join a carpool (the . Transit Information
brochure contained an Centers
application to the . Commuter Information
region's free comput- Centers located at
erized ridematching 500 employment sites
throughout the
region)
What would you do . When the HOV lanes . Transit Information
with 100 hours of were opening Centers
free time? Poster . Join a carpool/ride Commuter Information
(two sizes: 11"x17" the bus (located at 500
and 28"x48") employment sites
throughout the
region)
I-5 HOV Lanes . HOV lanes opening on I-5 . Posted on outside
transit exterior sign in S. King County 100 buses traveling
I-5 corridor in S.
King County
I-5 HOV Lanes . HOV lanes opening on I-5 . Desktop by Jani-
post-it-notes in S. King County torial services at
targeted worksites
. Worksites transpor-
tation fairs
I-5 HOV Lanes . HOV lanes opening on I-5 . Desktop by Jani-
buttons in S. King County torial services at
targeted worksites
. Worksites transpor-
tation fairs
The total budget (including all consultant costs for marketing
and promotion strategy development and implementation) totaled
$41,530. This budget covered all costs, including
printing/production costs, postage/distribution costs and
advertising/transit sign placement-costs.
7.2.5 Community Reaction
SHOVE was satisfied that the needs of the community were met
through the opening of the I-5 South HOV lanes. This satisfaction
was evidenced by leaders of SHOVE formally thanking members of the
Transportation Commission, as well as positive statements made by
SHOVE leaders to the media regarding the efforts made by WSDOT to
design and build the lanes swiftly. In a survey conducted by the
WSDOT to gauge traveler support for the HOV facility after the
opening of the lanes, nearly 80% of those surveyed who traveled the
South-I-5 corridor agreed with the statement "HOV lanes are a good
idea" and thought that WSDOT should extend the HOV lanes farther.
Over 70% thought WSDOT should continue with the construction of HOV
lanes and only a little more than 10% of survey respondents agreed
with the statement "HOV treatment is unfair to single-occupant
travelers".
A-7-7
7.2.6 Monitoring
No evaluation of the marketing activities was undertaken as
part of the project. However, a number of reports were written to
monitor the usage of the newly opened lanes themselves. In
general, it was concluded that in-and-of themselves, the lanes
covered too short of a distance to persuade any substantial mode-
shift to HOV. Moreover, a lack of addition transportation system
management treatments such as park-and-ride lots and ramp metering
hampered the success of the HOV facility. The new facility did,
however, provide time-savings and travel time reliability to those
who did use them. An evaluation undertaken by WSDOT estimated
travel time savings of only 2 to 3 minutes. However, some users.of
the lanes -- particularly leaders of SHOVE -- have reported
significant travel time saving of over 15 minutes on some days.
(See "Community Reaction - 7.2.5" for additional information)
7.2.7 General Marketing Conclusions
As with most HOV projects, it is difficult to separate the success
of the marketing activities from the success of the project. Well-
designed projects where there is demand will resulting facility
success, whereas poorly designed projects or projects implemented
in areas where there is little demand may be termed a failures. In
the case of the I-5 South HOV lanes, the facility did little to
contribute to Washington States goals for mobility and congestion
management.
There were, however, two key elements which make the project a
success from a marketing perspective:
. Market research activities established a baseline of
depth and breadth regarding HOV understanding and
support. This market research -- both telephone survey
and Executive Interviews -- gave the WSDOT an
understanding of the expectations their constituents had
for HOV facilities. This information aided not only in
the marketing messages used to promote the opening of the
HOV lanes, but in the design of the facility as well.
. The constituency-building which was an integral part of
the technical planning and implementation actions,
established the WSDOT commitment to HOV facilities as
part of the Vision of the region's vision for mobility
This process of recognizing jurisdictions and community
leaders as partners in the education and marketing
process as well as the planning of the facility broadened
the understanding and support for the specific HOV
facility on I-5 in South King County.
A-7-8
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Executive Interviews. Pacific Rim Resources. December 13,
1990.
Public Opinion and Behavior Regarding HOV Alternatives: Volume
One. Pacific Rim Resources. November 20, 1990.
Public Opinion and Behavior Regarding HOV Alternatives:
Findings, Communications Strategies, Appendix. Pacific Rim
Resources. November 20, 1990.
Communication Strategies. Pacific Rim Resources. December
13, 1993.
I-5 South Interim HOV Project: Final Recommendations Report.
Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade & Douglas, Inc. July 8, 1991.
Evaluation of Seattle's South I-5 Interim HOV Lanes Gary
Farnsworth WSDOT. Spring 1992.
A-7-9
.
.
.
.
APPENDIX B
SAMPLE MATERIALS
- NEWSLETTER (Minnesota I-394)
- HANDOUT (Seattle)
- PIZZA-HUT TIE-IN (Hampton Roads)
- NEWSPAPER AD (Nashville)
- CONSTRUCTION BULLETIN (Minnesota I-394)
- HOV SYSTEM FLYER (Seattle)
- PRESS RELEASE (San Jose)
B-1
EXPRESSIONS
INTERSTATE 394
A Newsletter for Interstate-394 Users, Area Residents and Business
December 1985
Diamond in the Rough
.
Welcome to EXPRESSIONS
Welcome to the first issue of EXPRESSIONS, a newsletter
especially, for people whose Highway 12 or who live or work near
it.
It will be published periodically in the Minnesota Department
of Transportation (MnDOT) over the next five years while Highway 12
is being reconstructed into Interstate-394
Through EXPRESSIONS, readers will receive information about
construction activities, use of the interim Express lane, changes
in bus services, and carpooling and vanpooling opportunities.
You can also get up-to-date information about Highway 12/I-394
from the I-394 Information Center. Just call HELP-394 (435-7394).
The equation is short and simple, but in other respects has
great length: 11 miles of Highway 12 plus five construction years
equals lnterstate-394.
Looking at it another way, people using Highway 12 will need
patience and flexibility in their approach to travel during the
next few years.
The Minnesota Department of Transportation-working with other
governmental organizations is taking some positive steps to help
make the transition easier. Among them:
* An interim Express lane in the Highway 12 median for buses,
vanpools and two-or-more person carpools during morning and
afternoon rush hours.
* Expanded Metropolitan Transit Commission bus service between
Mound and downtown Minneapolis.
* About 250 new free parking spaces in downtown Minneapolis
for registered carpools and vanpools.
* A new Minnesota Rideshare newsletter, "The Big Ride Guide,"
for helping people to carpool and vanpool.
* An I-394 Information Center for immediate, two-way
communication by calling HELP-394 (435-7394).
When not physically separated from other lanes, the Express
lane will carry, a diamond designation both on the roadway and
signage.
Only the permanent Express lanes east of Highway, 100 will be
physically separated from the regular lanes.
In the highway's final design, the permanent Express lanes
will be first of their kind for Minnesota. When the permanent
special lanes are completed, estimated time savings will be about
10 to 12 minutes from Wayzati to downtown Minneapolis and about 5
minutes from Highway 100 to downtown Minneapolis.
Continued on page 4
Construction Timetable
.
Six separate projects will be underway along Highway
12/Interstate-394 during all or part of the 1986 construction
season. Minnesota Department of Transportation officials expect no
new major rerouting of traffic during that season.
The projects in capsule form:
- Work on main traffic lanes the past year between Highway 101
in Wayzata and I-494 will continue next year. Westbound traffic
will continue to use the north frontage road. Eastbound traffic
will use the newly constructed eastbound lanes. Project completion
is scheduled for next fall.
- A series or bypasses and part of the interim Express lane
between I-494 and Plymouth Road will begin construction in May.
Reconstruction of the main traffic lanes is set to begin in 1987.
- Construction of bypasses and part of the interim Express
lane between Shelard Parkway and Boone Avenue will begin in August.
- Wirth Parkway bridge and Penn Avenue bridge and interchange
work also will begin next year. Three new downtown bridges at 11th
Street, 12th Street and Linden Avenue now are under construction
and scheduled for completion next fall.
- The 5th Street garage with about 1,600 parking spaces is
also scheduled for a 1986 construction start, with completion in
fall 1987. Construction on the I-394 project will continue until
late 1990, according to plans.
Matchmaking: Made easier by Big Ride Guide
.
Are your nerves frazzled from rushhour traffic on Highway 12?
Are you tired of driving alone? Are you sick of wasting money on
expensive parking?
Well, Minnesota Rideshare has a new way to help you find a
friend to ride with in order to use the new interim Express lane
and save time and money, not to mention your sanity.
The Big Ride Guide is a new free monthly classified ad
newsletter just for people who want to carpool or vanpool on
Highway 12/I-394. Starting in January, the news letter will be
available to pick up at 18 locations throughout the Highway 12
area.
The Guide lists carpool and vanpool opportunities for people
living near Highway 12 with work destinations anywhere in the Twin
Cities area.
Anyone can place an ad for a carpool or vanpool partner free
by calling HELP-394 (435-7394) or Rideshare (349-7433). Ads will
list your first initial and last name only, your city, your
workplace, your working hours and your telephone number.
All you need to do is add one person to your car or van to
qualify for using the Express lane.
Randi Alcott, Rideshare manager, says "We feel it gives people
an option if they choose not to phone in and become part of our
computer-matching process.
Rideshare also provides another service. Its computer-
matching program for carpoolers and vanpoolers has been available
since 1977. Currently, the program has 11,000 registered people.
You can also register for this service. It, too, is free!
Those who register obtain a list of people who have similar work
hours, and home and work locations.
Rideshare can refer people to 185 active vanpools in the Twin
Cities.
Drivers of Rideshare vans ride free and have free personal use
of the van. Passenger fares depend on the number of persons
regularly riding in the van and the distance travelled.
Information on all Rideshare programs can be obtained by
calling HELP-394 (435-7394) or Rideshare (349-7433).
.
Guide for Using the Sane Lane
A few things are important to remember when you're using the
interim Express lane to keep everyone safe and traffic moving.
They include:
- You can use the Express lane eastbound from-6-9 a.m. and
westbound from 3-7 p.m. on weekdays. It will be closed all other
times.
- You can use the Express lane if you have one other person
riding with you. (Yes, children are people too!). You don't need a
special permit to use the special lane.
- Always get in and out of the Express lane at the entrances
and exits (see map below). You should never enter or exit at an
intersection.
- Observe all signs and traffic signals. They will tell you
how an when to use the lane. A red "X" means the lane is closed; a
green "." means the lane is open; a yellow "." means the lane is
being opened or closed. Gates will block entrances to the lane
when it is not open.
- You must observe all regular traffic laws, including speed
limits.
- If your vehicle breaks down, move it as far to the side of
the lane as possible so others can get around it easily and safety.
Emergency vehicles will be able to use the lane to assist you.
- Never use the lane when driving alone. The State Highway
Patrol will enforce traffic laws. If you fail to follow the two-or-
more-persons rule, you will be fined and receive a moving
violation.
.
MTC Bumps Up Service
.
Metropolitan Transit Commission bus service along Highway 12
from Mound to downtown Minneapolis has taken on a new look.
Effective December 28, the existing Route 51 bus line became
two new routes- Route 51 and Route 75. Guaranteed connections at
the Wayzata Park'n Ride lot is a major feature of the new service.
They also are planned for other locations in the future as I-394
bus service is expanded.
Guaranteed connections take the worry out of making timely
transfers. When traveling during rush hour, your transfer at the
Wayzata Park'n Ride lot is assured.
Quick-and-easy connections are made possible by buses that
actually wait to take you to your final destination.
Highlights of the new service:
- Route 51 provides local service between the Wayzata Park'n
Ride lot, the Ridgedale area, St. Louis Park, Golden Valley and
Minneapolis. Buses are to run everyl5 to 30 minutes during weekday
rush hours and every 60 minutes at other times.
- During weekday rush hours, selected Route 51 buses will
travel between downtown Minneapolis and the General Mills-Shelard
Park office complex, replacing service provided by Route 58.
- A special subscription-service bus will serve Cargill-bound
passengers. Details are available-at Cargill in Minnetonka.
- Route 75 will provide rush-hour express service between
Mound, Spring Park, Orono, Long Lake, Wayzata and downtown
Minneapolis via the Express lane. Buses will run every 15 to 30
minutes during rush hours.
- Connections are assured between Route 51 and Route 75 at the
Wayzata Park'n Ride lot.
- Route 75 express buses will make only one stop-at the County
Road 73 Park'n Ride lot between the Wayzata Park'n Ride lot and
downtown Minneapolis.
- Route 75E will provide non-stop express service between
Crystal Bay and downtown Minneapolis.
- Route 75 will provide shuttle service between Route 51 and
Lake Minnetonka communities during the middle of the day on a full-
week basis.
The guaranteed connections approach was fashioned after
similar "timed-transfer" busing systems in Seattle, Washington, and
Portland, Oregon and the Canadian cities of Edmonton, Alberta, and
Ottawa, Ontario.
Call MTC at 827-7733 for more detailed information on bus
stops, hours of service and route schedules.
In addition, Medicine Lake Lines also provides bus service to
people living in the Highway-12/I-394 area. For more information
on its services, call 545-1617.
.
Parking Offers Perks
What's even better than a free lunch if you work in downtown
Minneapolis? Why, free parking, of course!
People who carpool or vanpool or ride the bus will find an
abundance of free parking along Highway 12 and in downtown
Minneapolis during 1986. There are six free Park'n Ride lots with
prime locations:
- Municipal parking lot near the bus shelter in Mound.
- Marina Center along County Road 15 in Spring Park.
- On Wayzata Boulevard east of Barry Avenue in Wayzata.
- Ridgedale Shopping Center.
- County Road 73 at Highway 12.
- Plymouth Metrolink lot at County
Road 73 and Highway 55.
There are many other free Park'n Ride lots throughout the I-
394 service area. You can obtain information about these lots by
calling HELP-394 (435-7394) or the Metropolitan Transit Commission
(827-7733).
In the downtown area, five free parking areas are available
for registered carpoolers and vanpoolers:
- 10th Street North and Glenwood Avenue, 250 spaces in a newly
opened lot (see map on page 3).
- 3rd Street North and 3rd Avenue North, 178 spaces.
- Glenwood Avenue and Lyndale Avenue, 300 spaces.
- Along 4th Street North between 5th and 10th Avenues North,
650 spaces.
- Auditorium ramp at 15th Street South and Nicollet Avenue,
617 spaces for three-persons-or-more vehicles and 25 spaces for
two-persons-or-more vehicles.
All but the 3rd Street North and 4th Street North lots are
convenient to pickup locations for dime-zone bus service to the
downtown area.
Anyone can use Park'n Ride lots free whether you're catching a
bus or meeting a carpool or vanpool.
For free use of downtown lots, you first must obtain a
carpool/vanpool parking permit from Minnesota Rideshare. That
permit and a special parking lots map can be obtained by calling
HELP-394 (435-7394) or Rideshare (349-7433).
Diamond
Continued from page 1
During the construction period, the interim special lane-
located in the road's median area-will be the most efficient route
both east and west, even with stoplights. MNDOT is calling it "the
sane lane" in its informational campaign.
Many agencies are working together with MNDOT to make the
Highway 12/interstate-394 construction project a success.
They include Federal Highway Administration, Metropolitan
Council, Regional Transit Board, MTC, Rideshare, State Highway
Patrol, Hennepin County, City of Minneapolis, Medicine Lake Bus
Lines, Minneapolis Downtown Council, TwinWest Chamber of Commerce,
and local communities, businesses and private citizens in the
Highway 12 area.
CALL
HELP-394
THE I-394 CONNECTION
Questions?
Call Help-394
The I-394 Information Center is a telephone "hotline" designed
to give people fast answers to questions they have about the
roadway under construction, plus questions about bus services and
carpooling and vanpooling opportunities.
Operators will answer calls from 8 a.m. to 10 p.m. seven days
a week. From 10 p.m. to 8 a.m., a recorded message will provide
basic I-394 information.
If the caller needs more detailed information than is
available at the Information Center, the call is to be forwarded
immediately to MNDOT, MTC or Minnesota Rideshare.
Minnesota Department of Transportation
District 5 Headquarters
2055 N. Lilac Drive
Golden Valley, MN 55422
Keeping People on the Move.....................
.
The Puget Sound region is a great place to live, work and play Our
quality of life has made this region one of the fastest growing
areas in the U.S. Unfortunately we also have one of the country's
worst traffic congestion problems.
We can help our transportation system keep pace with rapid growth
by concentrating on moving people, not just vehicles.
Working together, local governments and transportation agencies in
the Puget Sound region are promoting efficient use of our
transportation system. By maximizing the people carrying capacity
of existing and planned facilities, we are striving to ensure
mobility in the face of rapid growth.
The private sector plays a role too. Employers and developers do
their part, individually or collectively through transportation
management associations, to encourage transit and ridesharing.
Their promotion of services and incentive goes hand in hand with
public investments.
Greater use of high occupancy vehicles - HOV's - means continued
mobility for all our highway users. This brochure describes
cooperatively planned services and facilities to keep people moving
in the Puget Sound region.
Moving People, Not Just Vehicles
Transit and Ridesharing
Buses, carpools and vanpools are all HOV's. They move more people
in fewer vehicles. This means our freeways and arterials can carry
more people faster and safer.
Transit services, ridematching, and public and private vanpool
programs increase HOV use. Employer subsidies for transit passes,
flexible working hours, and state tax incentives make transit use
and ridesharing easy and economical.
.
Commuter Parking
Park-and-ride and park-and-pool lots are conveniently located
throughout the Puget Sound region to encourage transit use and
ride-sharing. More commuter parking lots am being built to keep up
with growing demand.
Priority parking at the work site and reduced parking rates at
public and private lots are also important incentives for forming
carpools and vanpools.
Registered carpools and vanpools get reduced monthly rates on the
state ferry system. They also get guaranteed loading privileges at
designated ferry terminals. This gives HOV users a real advantage
over driving alone.
Exclusive lanes for buses, carpools and vanpools form the backbone
of our HOV system. With over 35 miles of these lanes on our
freeways and arterials, we now have one of the world's most
extensive networks of HOV lanes. By 1993, 60 more miles of HOV
lanes will be built. HOV lanes have been resoundingly successful
at moving more people in fewer vehicles.
Ridesharers in the HOV lanes save time and traffic hassles 24 hours
a day seven days a week. HOV lanes are convenient not only for
commuting to work and school, but also for getting to special
events, for bypassing heavy weekend and holiday traffic, and for
just plain getting around. Since most HOV lanes are always open to
those who share a ride, there's little confusion about who can use
the lanes and when. And that means safety for everyone.
Generally speaking, a vehicle must be carrying three people to use
the HOV lanes or to be registered for other special carpool and
vanpool privileges. But some facilities, such as the HOV lanes on
I-405. presently allow two persons per vehicle. As these
facilities become crowded, the number may be raised to three, thus
ensuring that transit users and ridesharers will continue to move
quickly and conveniently Federal law allows motorcycles to also use
HOV lanes.
.
.
.
.
HOV LANES. THEY KEEP PEOPLE MOVING
The I-5 southbound HOV lane near Northgate in Seattle carries 40%
more people than any of the general purpose lanes: and
This I-5 HOV lane carries 26% of the total people using the freeway
during the peak hour in only 5% of the vehicles.
The SR-520 HOV lane in east King County carries 46% more people
than either of the general purpose lanes; and
This SR-520 HOV lane carries 42% of the total people on the freeway
during the peak hour in only 7% of the vehicles.
.
For more information about HOV facilities and services call the
Washington State Department of Transportation at (206) 562-4000.
Prepared by the Puget Sound Council of Governments and the
Washington State Department of Transportation with support from the
Federal Highway Administration and Urban Mass Transportation
Administration and public transportation agencies in the Puget
Sound region. April, 1988
.
.
.
.
.
CONSTRUCTION BULLETIN
July 2, 1992
Ramp from Cedar Lake Rd. to north Hwy. 100 to close
Weather permitting, the ramp from Cedar Lake Rd. to northbound Hwy.
100 will close on Monday, July 6, to allow crews to build the
permanent northbound Hwy. 100 bridge.
The ramp may remain closed until the I-394/Hwy. 100 interchange is-
complete this fall.
Cedar Lake Rd. motorists can access northbound Hwy. 100 by
traveling south on Hwy. 100 and turning around at Minnetonka Blvd.,
or by following Park Place Blvd./Xenia Ave., the north frontage
road, an Turners Crossroad north to Glenwood Ave. where access to
Hwy. 100 is possible.
If you have questions about I-394/Hwy. 100 interchange
construction, please call Fred Starke, project supervisor, at 374-
2185, or Kelly Cordell, public affairs, at 593-8423.
.
HOV
High-Occupancy Vehicle Lanes
In an effort to increase the people-carrying capacity of our
freeways and promote the use transit and ridesharing, the
Washington State Department of Transportation, in cooperation with
Metro and the Puget Sound Council of Governments, has developed a
comprehensive program to create highoccupancy vehicle lanes on our
freeway system.
High-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes are traffic lanes reserved
for transit and ridesharing vehicles on a highway or arterial
system. These lanes allow buses, carpools and vanpools to bypass
the remaining congested freeway lanes, providing commuters a
powerful incentive for ridesharing. Riding the bus and
participating in a carpool or vanpool conserves energy, reduces air
pollution and uses less space on our overcrowded freeways.
.
HOV Lane Facts:
There are 36.2 miles of HOV lanes in the Seattle area,
including 15.6 miles on Interstate 5, 2.8 on State Route 520, 12.4
miles on Interstate 405, 3.3 miles on State Route 522, and 2.1
miles on Seattle city streets and arterials.
By 1993 an additional 60 miles of HOV lanes are to be
operational.
The HOV lanes have proven to be resoundingly successful in
improving the capability of the current freeway system to move more
people.
The HOV lane on southbound I-5 near Northgate carries 40
percent more people every morning than any of the adjacent lanes.
On SR 520, the Hov lane carries 46 percent more people every
morning than either of the adjacent lanes.
The HOV lanes carry more people in far fewer vehicles. The I-5
HOV lane carries
26 percent of the people on the highway in the peak hour in
only 5 percent of the vehicles.
On SR 520, the HOV lane carries 42 percent of the people in
only 7 percent of the vehicles.
While all the other lanes are running at capacity, the HOV
lanes are at less than 25 percent of their capacity.
New freeways are very unlikely due both to their cost and
their impact on established communities.
HOV lanes are the only means we have to accommodate the peak
hour travel increases that are accompanying the growth in
employment centers of downtown Seattle, Bellevue and in many
suburban areas.
Diamond lanes are nobody's best friend, right? Then who are all
these new carpools?
Commuters taking to diamond lane
BY GARY RICHARDS
Mercury News StaffWriter
Santa Clara County commuters despise carpool lanes, most
people says.
The lanes don't go anywhere, they whine, I work too late. It's
not convenient. I like driving alone.
Well, maybe they used to think that way.
Morning rush hour carpooling on Highway 101 has doubled --
from 14.5 to nearly 30 percent of all vehicles on the road -- In
the past year. And more people ride in 101's carpool lane than in
the other three lanes combined -- on an average day there are 3,771
carpoolers to 3,554 solo travelers.
The surprising figures are included in the state Department of
Transportation's first study of carpool use on 101 since it was
widened to eight lanes in 1993. The widening made carpooling
practical for large numbers of motorists for the first time,
because a diamond lane now runs a full 26 miles from Bernal Road in
South San Jose to the San Mateo County line.
See CAR POOLS, Back Page
Ex-scoffers flock to diamond lanes
The more the speedier for commuters on 101
CAR POOLS
from Page 1A
The carpool figures for the afternoon commute are not as high
as increase from 15.5 percent to 21.8 percent and 1,655 people
riding in the carpool lane compared to 4,909 in the other three
lanes. But overall, the report debunks the long-held notion that
South Bay commuters insist on driving to and from work alone.
And it vindicates what transportation planers have long said:
Build a carpool lane that runs uninterrupted over a long distance,
and the advantages of carpooling will outweigh the headaches. For
solo drivers, the 12« miles on 101 from Capitol Expressway in San
Jose to Fair Oaks Avenue in Sunnyvale takes a sluggish 35 minutes.
For car pools, a snappy 16 minutes.
"We've been saying this is what would happen," said Caltrans
engineer David Seriani, who conducted the study last month. "But
it's happened so fast. That has surprised us."
Beat experts' goals
The numbers surpass what Caltrans' carpool experts in Southern
California, where diamond lane hours are in effect 24 hours a day,
call successful.
"Get 17 percent of vehicles to carpool, that's good here,"
said joel Harake, head of Caltrans' Orange County carpool unit.
Remember, the 1990 census awarded Santa Clara County the
dubious honor of having the highest percentage of solo commuters of
all urban counties in the state -- 77.7 percent. That was higher
than even car-crazy Los Angeles, where 70.1 percent went solo.
Mercury Center
INSTRUCTIONS ON PAGE 2A
Summary of Highway 101 carpool study N530
Discuss traffic issues in Mercury Center. From Communication,
.
APPENDIX C
HOV PROJECT DATA
.
INVENTORY OF EXISTING AND PROPOSED
HIGH-OCCUPANCY VEHICLE PROJECTS
June 1994
The following inventory is updated every six months and includes
projects located in freeway and separate rights-of-way within North
America. Arterial treatments are not included.
To obtain future copies and offer changes to this inventory,
contact Chuck Fuhs at 714-973-4880 or FAX 714-973-4918.
.
.
.
.
.
.
APPENDIX D
SAMPLE SURVEY FORMS
ORANGE COUNTY I-405 (Post Card Survey)
HOUSTON NORTHWEST TRANSITWAY CARPOOL/VANPOOL SURVEY
MINNEAPOLIS I-394 HOV LANE USE USER SURVEY
SANTA MONICA FREEWAY CORRIDOR USER SURVEY
D-1
.
D-2
.
D-3
.
D-4
.
D-5
.
D-6
.
D-7
.
D-8
.
D-9
.
D-10
.
D-11
.
D-12
APPENDIX E
DIRECTORY OF HOV
MARKETING CONTACTS
E-1
APPENDIX E
DIRECTORY OF HOV
MARKETING CONTACTS
Appendix E is a directory of HOV professionals with marketing
experience around the U.S. and Canada. General area(s) of
expertise noted in parentheses.
Baird, Jan (marketing)
Partnership Marketing
111 N. Sepulveda Blvd., Suite 250
Manhattan Beach, CA 90266
(310) 937-1502
Billheimer, John (research, enforcement, evaluation, marketing)
Vice President
SYSTAN, Inc.
343 Second Street
P.O. Box U
Los Altos, CA 94022
(415) 941-3311
Burroughs, Presley (citizen participation)
State of California
Department of Transportation, District 7
120 S. Spring Street
Los Angeles, CA 90012
(213) 897-4428
Christiansen, Dr. Dennis (policy, planning, design, operation,
evaluation)
Division Head
Texas Transportation Institute
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843
(409) 845-1535
Dunn, Frank (planning)
Senior Transportation Engineer
Virginia DOT
1401 East Broad Street
Richmond, VA 23219
(804) 786-2974
Emerson, Jerry
Traffic Management System Division
FHWA, Off ice of Traffic Operations
400 7th Street S.W. HTV-31
Washington, D.C. 20590
E-2
APPENDIX E
DIRECTORY OF HOV
MARKETING CONTACTS
Fuhs, Charles (planning, design, implementation, operation)
Senior Professional Associate
Parsons Brinckerhoff
505 S. Main Street, Suite 900
Orange, CA 92668
(714) 973-4880
Iwamuro, Heather
Commuter Transportation Services
3550 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 300
Los Angeles, CA 90010
(213) 380-7750
Klusza, Ron (planning, evaluation, operation) Traffic Operations
HOV Coordinator CALTRANS District 7
120 South Spring Street
Los Angeles, CA 90012
(213) 620-3264
Larson, James L.
Community Affairs Director
State of California
Department of Transportation, District 11
2829 Juan Street
P.O. Box 85406
San Diego, CA 92186-5406
(619) 688-6678
Lomax, Tim (planning, evaluation, design, operation)
Associate Research Engineer
Texas Transportation Institute
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843
(409) 845-1535
Loomis, Melissa
Public Information Officer
Washington State Department of Transportation
District 1
15700 Dayton Avenue North
P.O. Box 330310
Seattle, WA 98133-9710
(206) 440-4700
E-3
APPENDIX E
DIRECTORY OF HOV
MARKETING CONTACTS
Moore, J.B. (marketing, public relations)
The Roanoke Company
1115 Merrill Street
Menlo Park, CA 94025
(415) 327-2251
Morris, Joan (public information)
Virginia Department of Transportation
3975 Lake Ridge Drive
Fairfax, VA 22033
(703) 934-7309
Pint, Al (design, implementation, operation)
I-394 Project Manager
Minnesota DOT
Waters Edge Building
1500 Watt County Road B2
Roseville, MN 55113
(612) 582-1343
Pratsch, Lew (operation)
Program Manager
Department of Energy
Forrestal Building
1000 Independence Avenue, S.W., Room 5FO178
Washington, D.C. 20585
(703) _960-7433
Rains, Karla (market research)
Director of Marketing Research
Minnesota Department of Transportation
Waters Edge Building
1500 Watt County Road B2
Roseville, MN 55113
(612) 582-1396
Rockvam, Judith (marketing)
I-394 Project Liaison
Metropolitan District
Traffic Management Center
1101 - 4th Avenue S.
Minneapolis, MN 55404
(612) 341-7505
E-4
APPENDIX E
DIRECTORY OF HOV
MARKETING CONTACTS
Roper, Dave (design, implementation, operations)
Roper & Associates 1732 Hill Street
Santa Monica, CA 90403
(310) 452-3301
Sinclair, Camille (public information)
New Jersey Department of Transportation
1035 Parkway Avenue, CN 600
Trenton, NJ 08625
(609) 530-4280
South Webster, Lynda
Director
Office of Public Affairs
Virginia Department of Transportation
1401 East Broad Street
Richmond, VA 23219
(804) 786-2715
Stamm, Heidi (marketing public involvement)
Pacific Rim Resources
10700 Meridian Avenue, North, Suite 506
Seattle, WA 98133
(206) 367-5120
Strickland Sheldon (operation)
Chief, Traffic Management & System Division
FHWA, Office of Traffic Operations
400 7th Street, S.W., HTO-1
Washington, D.C. 20590
(202) 366-1993
Turnbull, Katherine (policy, evaluation)
Assistant Research Scientist
Texas Transportation Institute
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843
(409) 845-1535
E-5
APPENDIX E
DIRECTORY OF HOV
MARKETING CONTACTS
Van Luven, Heidi
Maryland Dept. of Transportation
State Highway Administration
707 North Calvert Street, Room 215
Baltimore, MD 21202
(800) 735-2258
Wraith, Linda
Advertising and Promotions Coordinator
Metro
Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle
821 Second Avenue, M.S. 62
Seattle, WA 98104-1598
(206) 684-1550
Young,Roy
Commuter Transportation Services
3550 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 300
Los Angeles, CA 90035
(213) 365-6822
Zimmer, Charleen (public awareness)
Associate
Stargar-Roscoe-Fausch
One Carlson Parkway N., Suite 150
Minneapolis, MN 55391
(612) 475-0010
E-6
APPENDIX F
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
F-1
APPENDIX F
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Guide for the Design of High Occupancy Vehicle Facilities,
Washington, D.C., 1991
Batz, Thomas M., Occupancy Vehicle Treatments, Impacts and
Parameters (A Synthesis), Volume 1: Procedures and Conclusion,
New Jersey Department of Transportation, Trenton, New Jersey,
August, 1986.
Billheimer, John W., Ken Kaylor, and Charles Shade. Use of
Videotape in HOV Lane Surveillance and Enforcement, prepared
for the California Department of Transportation by SYSTAN,
Inc., and ATD, Inc., Los Altos, California, March, 1990.
Billheimer, John W. HOV Lane Violation Study. Final Report
prepared for the California Department of Transportation and
the California Highway Patrol by SYSTAN, Inc., Los Altos,
California, January, 1990.
Billheimer, John W., Kevin Fehon and Derek Bell. HOV System
Planning Study for the Sacramento Metropolitan Area Final
Report prepared for the Sacramento Area Council of Governments
by SYSTAN, Inc., Los Altos, California, May, 1990.
Billheimer, John W. San Francisco Bay Area HOV Lane User Study,
Final Report prepared for the Metropolitan Transportation
Commission by SYSTAN, Inc., Los Altos, California, May, 1990.
Billheimer, John W. Commuter Lane Performance Evaluation, prepared
for the Santa Clara County Transportation Agency by SYSTAN,
Inc., January, 1989.
Billheimer, John W., J. McNally, and R. Trexler, Evaluating and
Planning-HOV Enforcement, Transportation Research Board,
Washington, D.C., 1983.
Billheimer, John W., Juliet McNally and Robert Trexler, TSM Project
Violation Rates, Final Report prepared for the California
Department of Transportation and the California Highway Patrol
by SYSTAN, Inc., Los Altos, California, 1981.
Billheimer, John W., and Gail Fondahl, TSM Project Violation Rates:
Study Design, Prepared for the California Department of
Transportation and the California Highway Patrol by SYSTAN,
Inc., Los Altos, California, June, 1979.
Billheimer, John W., and J.B. Moore, THE DRIVER: A Public Education
Project by Law Enforcement, Vol. 1: Technical Report and Vol.
II: Planning, Implementation and Evaluation Guidelines,
prepared for the California Department of Transportation,
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration by SYSTAN,
Inc., Los Altos, California, January, 1987.
Billheimer, John W., and Robert Trexler, Evaluation Handbook for
Transportation Impact Assessment, Report No. UMTA-IT-06-0203-
81 -1, prepared for the Urban Mass Transportation
Administration, Washington, D.C., December, 1980.
F-2
APPENDIX F
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Billheimer, John W., Robert Bullemer and Carolyn Fratessa, The
Santa Monica Freeway Diamond Lanes: An Evaluation, SYSTAN,
Inc., Los Altos, California, April, 1977.
Billheimer, John W., San Tomas Expressway Data Review and
Requirements, prepared for the Santa Clara County
Transportation Agency by SYSTAN, Inc., Los Altos, CA, April,
1982.
Bloch, Arnold, Margaret Campbell, Wayne Ugolik, and Melvin
Cooperman, Marketing HOV in a Suburban Setting: The Long
Island Expressway Experience, paper presented at the 73rd
annual meeting of the Transportation Research Board,
Washington, D.C., January, 1994.
California Department of Transportation, Guidelines: Bus and
Carpool Lanes, Park-and-Ride, Draft, Sacramento, California,
February, 1981.
California Department of Transportation, HOV Guidelines,
Unpublished Draft, HOV Systems Branch, Sacramento, California,
1990.
California Department of Transportation, Caltrans District 04,
Bus/Carpool Lanes Route 101 Marin County: Evaluation Report,
San Francisco, California, March, 1977.
California Department of Transportation, Caltrans District 04, SCL-
101 Commuter Lane Preliminary Evaluation Report, San
Francisco, June, 1988.
California Department of Transportation, Caltrans District 07,
Route 55 Newport Costa Mesa Freeway Commuter Lane 18 Month
Report, Los Angeles, July, 1987.
California Department of Transportation, Caltrans District 04, Toll
Bridge Preferential Treatment Study, San Francisco, December,
1976.
California Department of Transportation, Caltrans District 07,
Route 91 Artesia Freeway Based on 18 Months of Commuter Lane
Use, Los Angeles, December, 1986.
California Department of Transportation, Caltrans District 07,
"Evaluation of Implemented HOV Strategies," Draft, December,
1977.
California Department of Transportation, Caltrans District 07,
Evaluation of High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) Strategies,
Unreleased Report, Los Angeles, April, 1978.
California Department of Transportation, Caltrans District 11,
Interstate Route 15 Reversible Roadway for High Occupancy
Vehicles Operational Plan, San Diego, July, 1984.
California Highway Patrol, "Golden Gate Division Motorcycle
Assignment CalTrans Committee Report," San Francisco, March,
1978.
F-3
APPENDIX F
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
California Highway Patrol, Freeway Enforcement, HPG 70.18,
Sacramento, California, March, 1971.
Cechini, Frank, Operational Considerations in HOV Facility
Implementation, prepared for Transportation Research Board
Task Force ASTS1 (HOV Systems) Federal Highway Administration,
Sacramento, CA, October, 1988.
Christiansen, Dennis L., The Effectiveness of High-Occupancy
-Vehicle-Facilities, Texas Transportation Institute, presented
at the Institute of Transportation Engineers annual meeting,
College Station, Texas, September, 1988.
Christiansen, Dennis L., The Status and Effectiveness of the Huston
High-Occupancy vehicle Lane System, 1988, Texas Transportation
Institute, presented at the 69th annual meeting of the
Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., January 1990.
DKS Associates, Route 101 in Santa Clara County, Corridor Study and
Operations Analysis, Final Report, prepared for Santa Clara
County Traffic Authority and the California Department of
Transportation, Oakland, CA, July, 1987.
Fuhs, Charles A. The Evolution of HOV Facility Development in
Southern California, Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade & Douglas,
presented at the Institute of Transportation Engineers annual
meeting, Orange, California, September, 1988.
Fuhs, Charles, High-Occupancy Vehicle Facilities, A Planning
Design, and Operation Manual, Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade &
Douglas, Inc., New York, December, 1990.
Glazer, Lawrence, J., San Bernadino Freeway Express Busway
Evaluation of Mixed-Mode Operations, prepared for Southern
California Association of Governments, Crain & Associates,
Menlo Park, California, July, 1978.
Institute of Transportation Engineers, The Effectiveness of High
-Occupancy Vehicle Facilities, Washington, D.C., 1986.
Institute of Transportation Engineers, More for Less With HOV: The
Benefits of High-Occupancy Vehicle Projects, ITE Publication
No. LP-251, Washington, D.C., 1992.
Institute of Transportation Engineers, Guidelines for High
-Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) Lanes, A Recommended Practice,
Publication No. RP-017, Washington, D.C., 1986.
Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California,
Irvine, Results of Preliminary Study of Accidents on the SR-55
Freeway, prepared for Orange County Transportation Commission
by ITS. Irvine, California, November, 1986.
F-4
APPENDIX F
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lomax, Timothy J., Freeway and HOV Lane Mobility Estimation
Methodology, Research Report 1131 -1, Texas Transportation
Institute for the Texas State Department of Highways and
Public Transportation, College Station, Texas, August, 1988.
Lomax, Timothy J., and Daniel E. Morris, Guidelines for Estimating
the Cost Effectiveness of Occupancy Vehicle Lanes. Research
Report 339-5, Texas Transportation Institute for the Texas
State Department of Highways and Public Transportation,
College Station, Texas, November, 1985.
Lovelock, Christopher H. and Charles B. Weinberg, Marketing for
Public and Non Profit Managers, John Wiley & Sons, 1984.
Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments, Washington HOV Lane
Conference Final Report, COG Number 89601, Washington, D.C.,
June 13, 1988.
MacCalden, M., Scott Jr., Report on Priority Lane Experiment on the
San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge, California Business and
Transportation Agency, Sacramento, CA, April, 1973.
Miller, Craig and Robert Deuser, Enforcement Requirements for High
-Occupancy Vehicle Facilities, Beiswenger, Hoch and
Associates, Inc., Final Report, December, 1978.
Newman, Leonard, Cornelius Nurworsoo, and Adolf D. May, Operational
Safety Experience with Freeway HOV Facilities in California,
Submitted to Transportation Research Board for Publication,
January, 1988.
Newman, Leonard, Cornelius K. Nurworsoo, and Adolf D. May, Design
of Bus and Carpool Facilities: A Technical Investigation,
Research Report UCB-ITS-R-87-15. Institute of Transportation-
Studies, University of California, Berkeley, November, 1987.
Orange County Transit District, Planning Department, Commuter
Market Study, September, 1985.
Orange County Transportation Commission, Commuter Attitudes Toward
Proposed High Occupancy Vehicle Lanes in Orange County,
August, 1985.
Pacific Rim Resources, Maintaining Public Acceptance of an HOV
Facility Implemented Through Lane Conversion, A handbook
developed for the Federal Highway Administration Services on
Planning, Operation and Design of High Occupancy Vehicle
Facilities, Atlanta, GA, August 1993.
Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade & Douglas, Orange County Transitway
Concept Design: Communications, Signage, and Passenger/User
Information System, Working Paper C.8, prepared for Orange
County Transit District, Orange, California, November 1988.
F-5
APPENDIX F
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Proceedings, Second National Conference on High-Occupancy Vehicle
Lanes and Transitways, Houston, Texas, October 25-28, 1987.
Proceedings, Third National High-Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) Facilities
Conference, Minneapolis, Minnesota, October 17-19, 1988.
Proceedings, Fourth National High-Occupancy Vehicle (HOV)
Facilities Conference, Washington, D.C., April, 1990.
Raub, R.A., Summary and Critique of the Literature Pertaining to
the Effects of Increased Enforcement of Traffic Lanes on
Improving Traffic Safety-(Reducing Accidents), Illinois
Department of Law Enforcement, Springfield, Illinois,
December, 1979.
Robinson, Jim, Signing and Pavement Markings for HOV Lanes,
prepared for the Institute of Transportation Engineers
Committee 5C-11: Guidelines for the Design Features of HOV
Facilities, Washington, D.C., April 27,1989.
Rothenberg, Morris J., and Donald R. Samdahl, High Occupancy
Vehicle Facility Development, Operation and Enforce (Volumes I
II), FHWA-IP-82-1, JHK and Associates for the U.S. Department
of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Alexandria,
Virginia, April, 1982.
Shu, Jarvia and L.J. Glazer, Commuter Computer Carpool Program
Evaluation, Commuter Transportation Services, Inc., Los
Angeles, May, 1979.
Stamm, Heidi, Marketing as Part of the HOV Planning Process,
presented at the 5th National Conference on High Occupancy
Vehicle Systems, Seattle, April, 1991.
Strgar-Roscoe-Fausch, Inc., Transportation System Management Plan,
Interstate 394, Summary Report prepared for Minnesota
Department of Transportation, Minneapolis, MN, January, 1986.
Strgar-Roscoe-Fausch, Inc., I-394 Interim HOV Lane: A Case Study
Phase I Report, prepared for Minnesota Department of
Transportation, Minneapolis, MN, October, 1987.
Strgar-Roscoe-Fausch, Inc., I-394 Interim HOV Lane: A Case Study
Phase 11 Report, prepared for Minnesota Department of
Transportation, Minneapolis, MN, July, 1990.
Strgar-Roscoe-Fausch, Inc., I-394 User-Assessment Survey, prepared
for Minnesota Department of Transportation, Minneapolis, MN,
April, 1993.
SYSTAN, Inc., Santa Clara County Commuter Lane Performance
Evaluation, prepared for Santa Clara County Transportation
Agency, Los Altos, CA, March, 1989.
F-6
APPENDIX F
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
SYSTAN, Inc., HOV Lane Violation Study: Study Plan, prepared for
the State of California Department of Transportation, Los
Altos, CA October, 1988.
Turnbull, Katherine F., and James Hanks, Jr., A Description of
High-Occupancy Vehicle Facilities in North America, Texas
Transportation Institute for the Texas Department of Highways
and Public Transportation, College Station, Texas, July 1990.
Turnbull, Katherine F., and Russell Henk, Suggested Procedures for
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Freeway HOV Facilities, Texas
Transportation Institute for the Texas State Department of
Highways and Public Transportation, College Station, Texas,
August, 1990.
Ulberg, Cy, Cost Effectiveness of HOV Lanes, Final Report, WA-RD
121.1, prepared for the Washington State Department of
Transportation, Olympia, Washington, March 26, 1987.
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
A Guidance Manual for Implementing Effective Employer-based
Travel Demand Management Programs, Washington, D.C., November
1993.
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
Evaluation of Travel Demand Management Measures to Relieve
Congestion, Washington, D.C., February 1990.
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
Implementing Effective Travel Demand Management Measures:
Inventory of Measures and Synthesis of Experience, Washington,
D.C., September 1993.
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and
Highways, Washington, D.C., 1988.
Virginia Department of Transportation, Hampton Roads Area HOV -
Rideshare Marketing Program, Richmond, VA, May, 1989.
Washington State Department of Transportation, Washington State
Freeway HOV System Policy, Executive Summary, Olympia, WA,
November, 1992.
Washington State Department of Transportation, High Occupancy
Vehicle Priority Treatment, Section 339, Washington State
Department of Transportation Design Manual, Olympia,
Washington, February 1988.
Webster, Lynda South, Historical Perspective on Hampton Roads HOV
Lanes, Internal Working Paper, Virginia Department of
Transportation, Updated.
Young, Roy and Jan Baird. The Influence of HOV Lane Access on
Rideshare Trial During a Major Rideshare Advertising Campaign
in Los Angeles, paper presented to the 73rd Annual Meeting of
the Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., January,
1994.
F-7
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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DOT-T-95-04
TECHNOLOGY SHARING
A Program of the U.S. Department of Transportation
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