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Selected and Annotated Bibliography on Congestion Pricing Measures - 1995 Update of the Metropolitan Transportation Plan for the Central Puget Sound Region
Click HERE for graphic. TABLE OF CONTENTS AVI-Based Tolls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Parking Charges or Restrictions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 License Fees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 Annual VMT Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 Fuel Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 AVI-BASED TOLLS "Big Brother is Clocking You", The Economist. August 7 1993. 71-72. This article discusses electronic tolling and congestion, raising the possibility of automated traffic police and other invasions of privacy as likely byproducts of this transportation technology. "Oklahoma's Automatic Toll Collection System Expands, " Urban Transportation Monitor. 1991. This article discusses the progress being made in demonstration toll collection projects in Oklahoma. Armstrong, John. "Breakthroughs in Vehicle Identification." Railway Age (1984):40-48. This article discusses technological advances in automatic vehicle identification. Beesley, Michael E. and David A. Hensher. "Private Toll Roads in Urban Areas: Some Thoughts on the Economic and Financial Issues." Transportation 16 (1990): 329-341. Governments of all persuasions are increasingly seeking the participation of the private sector in the supply of transport facilities and services. This paper considers some economic and financial problems in the private sector provision of major road infrastructure within urban areas. The main issues are attaching prices (i.e. tolls) to the provision of the service, the value of government rights which are being given up either permanently or temporarily, and the identification required by the promoters of the cost of capital which is essential information in establishing the risk. Broader environmental and equity issues are not addressed. If the approach to establishing a private presence in a previously public supply context is handled properly from the outset, the benefits can be significant. Contrarily, however, the prospects could be quite undesirable if badly managed, despite the presence of an extended public purse. Blythe, Philip T. and Peter J. Hills. "Pricing and Monitoring Electronically of Automobiles, The DRIVE Project PAMELA: 1. The Technology." Traffic Engineering and Control 32 (No. 5, May 1991): 240-245. This paper is the first in a series of three describing the research being undertaken by the PAMELA consortium under the European Commission's DRIVE program. This paper provides an introduction to the PAMELA system, outlining its aims and objectives and describing ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 1 ECO NORTHWEST the technology being developed by the consortium to facilitate the two way interchange of data between a moving vehicle and the roadside via a microwave communications link. Blythe, Philip T. and Peter J. Hills. "Automatic Debiting and Electronic Payment for Transport--The ADEPT Project." Traffic Engineering and Control (February. 1994) This paper provides an overview of the objectives and technology of the ADEPT project, Europe's leading research project in the field of road-use pricing and automatic debiting for road transport applications. ADEPT has developed an advanced transponder/smart card system which is planned for trial, or currently is under trial, in five European cities: Gteborg, Sweden; Cambridge, UK; Thessaloniki, Greece; Lisbon, Portugal; and Trondheim, Norway. Borins, Sandford F. "Electronic Road Pricing: An Idea Whose Time May Never Come." Transportation Research A 22A (No. 1 1988): 37-44. Hong Kong's experiment with electronic road pricing showed the technology to be completely feasible. However, the government was unable to implement the scheme due to strong opposition from a public that perceived it as an invasion of privacy and a tax increase. This outcome was partly the result of forces unique to Hong Kong's political culture as well as both strategic and tactical errors made by the Hong Kong government in presenting its proposal. The Hong Kong experience also raises serious questions about whether a sophisticated road pricing scheme will ever be acceptable in a democratic urban polity. Catling, Ian. "Automatic Vehicle Identification." In Information Technology Applications in Transport, ed. Peter Bonsall and Michael Bell. 41-64. Chapter 3. Utrecht, The Netherlands: VNU Science Press BV, 1987. This article discusses the technical aspects of AVI technology. Chaum, David. "Achieving Electronic Privacy." Scientific American (August 1992):96-101. This paper explores a cryptographic invention known as a blind signature, which permits numbers to serve as electronic cash or to replace conventional identification. The author hopes it may return control of personal information to the individual. City of Stockholm. Proposal for an Electronic Fee System for Car Traffic in the Stockholm Inner City Area. The Streets and- Traffic Administration, Stockholm, 1989 a. Draft. The draft of a proposed demonstration project of electronic tolling. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 2 ECO NORTHWEST City of Stockholm. Zone Fee Proposal Using Car Cards. Street Department, Stockholm, 1989 b. Final document proposing congestion pricing in Stockholm. Davies, Peter. "Vehicle Detection and Classification," in Information Technology Applications in Transport, ed. Peter Bonsall and Michael Bell. 11-40. Chapter 2. Utrecht, The Netherlands: VNU Science BV, 1987. This paper discusses the technical aspects of recognizing and identifying vehicles electronically, in motion. Davies, Peter. "Testing and Appraisal of Automatic Vehicle Identification Systems," in Selected Proceedings of the Fifth World Conference on Transport Research: Transport Policy, Management & Technology Towards 2001 in Yokohama, Japan, July 10-14, 1989, pp. B355-B363-. Provides guidelines for assessment of competing AVI systems. Davies, Peter and Fraser K. Sommerville. "Development of Heavy- Vehicle Electronic License Plate Concept." Transportation Research Record No. 1060 (1986):121-127. Described in this paper is the current progress of the work undertaken by the authors on the development of a heavy- vehicle electronic license plate (HELP) system in the United States, combining automatic vehicle identification (AVI), weight-in-motion (WIM), automatic vehicle classification, and data communications and processing. A summary is provided of the results of the studies on the technical and economic feasibility of the HELP concept, and its further development before a multi-state demonstration project, known as the Crescent Project. The format and content of the coded information stored in the identification tag attached to vehicles is also discussed. A summary of the cost-benefit analysis and the proposed implementation strategy leading to the demonstration project is also included. De Lozier, Edward J. How and Why AVI? 1990. Paper presented at the International Bridge, Tunnel and Turnpike Authority International Symposium on AVI Technology for Toll Collection, New York, N.Y. Discusses conditions under which automatic vehicle identification systems are appropriate and the implementations issues involved. Decorla-Souza, Patrick and Anthony R. Kane. "Peak Period Tolls: Precepts and Prospects." Transportation 19 (1992 a): 293-311. This article presents the economic rationale for road pricing and provides some information on the magnitude of peak period tolls that might be justified. It discusses the impacts of such tolls on congestion, air quality and economic development and suggests a long-term ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 3 ECO NORTHWEST strategy towards area wide implementation of peak period pricing. In particular, it discusses some aspects of the 1991 Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) which will eliminate some of the current restraints on congestion pricing and toll highways. Decorla-Souza, Patrick and Anthony R. Kane. "Region-Wide Toll Pricing: Impacts on Urban Mobility, Environment and Transportation Financing." In Congestion Pricing Symposium in Washington, D.C., June 10-12, edited by U.S. Department of Transportation, 1992. This paper discusses current trends which are increasing the likelihood for implementation of congestion pricing and toll roads in the future and the effects of area wide implementation of peak period tolling on highway finance, commuting behavior, and air quality and land use impacts. Downey, Cheryl. "Taking A Toll." The Orange County Register July 29 1994, Page 1. This article explores the difficulty involved in specifying a standard technology for electronic toll paying. Some experiences in California suggest that the smart card may be ahead of its time and that cheaper license plate debit tags are more desirable for toll officials and the public. Duve, John L. "How Congestion Pricing Came to be Proposed in the San Diego Region." In Curbing Gridlock, ed. National Research Council. Pages 318-333. Vol 2. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1994. The discussion in this paper covers how congestion pricing came to be proposed in the San Diego region and how and when political support developed and other evidence of how political leaders have publicly supported the concept of congestion pricing. An overview is provided of the San Diego Association of Governments' proposed Interstate 5 congestion pricing pilot program and pending enabling legislation. Field, Brian G. "Road Pricing in Practice.' Transportation Journal (Fall 1992): 5-14. The urban transportation problem is usually perceived as a disequilibrium, at peak times, between the supply of transport infrastructure and the demand for its use by an increasing population, for more journeys. Transport economists have generally argued that the only comprehensive long-term solution lies with the introduction of road pricing. This article evaluates Singapore's unique experience in actually employing the pricing mechanism to ration more effectively the use of roads during periods of peak demand and considers some ramifications of such a policy. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 4 ECO NORTHWEST Fielding, Gordon J. and Daniel B. Klein. How to Franchise Highways. University of California Transportation Center, 1992. Report No. UCTC 134. This paper discusses the recent interest in forming private/public consortiums to build and run "private" toll roads as an answer not only to public finance problems but also to address issues of congestion, pollution, and transit mode split. Fong, Peter K.W. "Issues of the Electronic Road Pricing System in Hong Kong." Transportation Planning and Technology 30 (1985): 29-41. This paper addresses the traffic-congestion problem and issues relating to the experiment of the world's first pilot scheme on Electronic Road Pricing System in Hong Kong. A brief description of the technical components as well as the social, economic, political and environmental impact of the system are given. This paper intends to generate further debate and analysis on the system's applicability in tackling urban traffic congestion problems. Foote, Robert S. "Prospects for Non-Stop Toll Collection Using Automatic Vehicle Identification." Transportation Quarterly 35 (No. 3, July 1981): 445-460. There are two broad parts to a fully automatic toll collection system: (1) a means to identify and uniquely record vehicles automatically as they are moving and (2) a means to confirm which vehicles are entitled to pass through the toll plaza without stopping, and to adjust their accounts to reflect the use they are making of the toll facility. Without the first part of this system, there has been little point in developing the second. But now, it appears, the first part of the system has been developed to the point where it will meet the performance needs of toll agencies, and work appears justified now to complete the entitlement checking and account maintenance part of the overall AVI-based toll collection system. This article reviews first the development and characteristics of the identification part of the system, then discusses the vehicle confirmation and accounting system segment. Geltner, David and Fred Moavenzadeh. "An Economic Argument for Privatization of Highway Ownership." Transportation Research Record 1107 (1987):14-20. There are four potential economic justifications for privatizing highways: greater revenues without increased taxes, improved highway use efficiency, production efficiency of maintenance, and quality of highway services. However, because of market imperfections of laissez-faire private provision of highways, the economic feasibility and desirability of privatization depend on regulatory structures to ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 5 ECO NORTHWEST efficiently control and mitigate potential problems of excess tolls and inadequate maintenance. Possible types of regulatory structures are discussed. Godwin, Stephen. "Congestion Pricing Symposium." TR News 169 (November-December 1993): 22-23. Technological advances are making it possible to charge users electronically and inexpensively, without having to resort to toll booths. However, many of the most difficult questions remain. The Transportation Research Board and the Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education of the National Research Council held a Congestion Pricing Symposium on June 23 and 24, 1993, to address these questions. A summary of the background, potential of pricing on behavior, major issues, and current proposals is provided in this article. G˘mez-Ib ¤ez, Jos Anthony. "The Political Economy of Highway Tolls and Congestion Pricing." Transportation Quarterly 46 (No. 3 1992): 343-360. This article discusses the primary reasons behind toll road implementation and why piecemeal tolling is more popular in the U.S. than in other countries. Also discusses congestion pricing for highways spurred by increases in traffic load and air pollution. G˘mez-Ib ¤ez, Jos A. and John R. Meyer. Private Toll Roads in the United States: The Early Experience of Virginia and California. Taubman Center, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, 1991. Final Report Prepared for the U.S. Department of Transportation. A growing number of states have expressed interest in privately financed, built and operated toll roads as a way of quickly and economically increasing highway capacity. This report assesses the prospects for private toll roads in the United States by examining the experience of five private toll proposals in Virginia and California. Although none of these five projects has been built yet, they are the most advanced proposals of their type and two are close to construction. Gordon, Deborah. Intelligent Vehicle/Highway Systems: An Environmental Perspective, 1992. Unpublished paper. Since roads are used essentially free of charge, the true cost of maintaining our highway system is about $95 billion and the social costs are an additional $285 billion, while total user taxes generate only $35 billion. This paper evaluates the environmental impact of each of several IVHS scenarios. Negative impacts of IVHS are: 1) increased travel, i.e. VNff, 2) increase in travel on currently under-utilized arterials and even local streets, increasing pollution and decreasing ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 6 ECO NORTHWEST quality of life, and 3) absorption of public and private resources to the extent that other technologies and innovative solutions will be grossly under-funded. Advantages are that certain IVHS technologies could buy time to develop better policies and technologies. The author sees Advanced Driver Information Systems (ADIS) and Automated Vehicle Control Systems (AVCS) as negative developments, but Advanced Traveler Information and Services (ATIS), Automatic Vehicle Information (AVI), Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL), and Weight-inMotion/Automatic Vehicle Classification (WIM/AVC) as positive. Halloran James V. "Standardizing Electronic Toll Collection." Policy Insight No. 149 (September 1992). This paper reviews the technical and policy (economic, legal, and social) implications of electronic toll collection systems. It finds that the technology is developing rapidly, with new approaches being developed by both U.S. and European firms. First-generation systems which are in use today possess few of the features promised by second generation systems now in the prototype stage. The preferable regulatory approach to standardizing electronic toll collection would be to set only interim, regional, performance-based specifications that would encourage ongoing improvements in the technology. Over the longer term, the marketplace is the preferable means of determining standards, as has occurred in both the consumer electronics and personal computer industries. Harrison, Bil. "Electronic Road Pricing in Hong Kong: 3. Estimating and Evaluating the Effects." Traffic Engineering and Control 27 (January 1986):13-18. This paper reviews the impacts of the road pricing program in Hong Kong. Hartje, Ronald L. "Tomorrow's Toll Road." Civil Engineering (February 1991):60-61. Private companies will soon be allowed to finance, build and operate private toll roads in California. In Orange County there are already three toll roads on the drawing boards for a total of 70 miles of urban tollways with an estimated cost of over $2 billion. Construction will begin in early 1991 with the first ribbon cutting in 1994 and is financed by a combination of developer fees and toll revenues. The projects are eligible for state and federal monies as one of the eight pilot projects across the country testing the waters for mixing public and private, monies. These activities and others have generated a 'toll mania , in the state that lead to the passage of Assembly Bill No. 680, which permits developers to build toll roads and collect tolls for 35 years. The ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 7 ECO NORTHWEST 'Privatization Bill' has tremendous potential towards helping relieve what the state predicts is a $40 billion transportation need in the next ten years. New technology such as a state-of-art electronic toll collection system that allows toll roads without toll plazas and innovative freeway designs using transportation demand philosophies will all help in selling toll roads and making them feasible. Hau, Timothy D. "Electronic Road Pricing: Developments in Hong Kong 1983-1989." Journal of Transport Economics and Policy 24 (No. 2, May 1990):203-214. This article provides the historic background to Hong Kong's electronic road pricing pilot program and discusses the reasons for its failure in 1985. Hau, Timothy D. "Congestion Charging Mechanisms for Roads." World Bank Policy Research Working Papers Series WPS 1071 (1992): 1- 99. Of the many direct and indirect methods of charging for road use, the key alternatives for reducing road congestion are (1) cordon pricing using manual tollbooths, (2) supplementary vehicle licensing, (3) automatic vehicle identification, and (4) smart card technology. Henion, Loyd and Barbara Koos. "The Heavy Vehicle Electronic License Plate System Development Program: A Progress Report." Transportation Research Forum Proceedings 27 (No. 1 1986): 188-192. The Heavy Vehicle Electronic License Plate (HELP) System Development Program is a cooperative multi-state project designed to demonstrate the applicability and use of automated vehicle identification (AVI), weigh-in-motion (WIM), and automated vehicle classification (AVC). Participating states are Alaska, California, Idaho, Iowa, Minnesota, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Washington. The project asks truck operators to place Heavy Vehicle Electronic License Plates on their vehicles. The HELP will develop and implement methods for improving the management of the highway system through a linking of this electronic equipment by a telecommunication network accessible to all participants, both public and private. The project will illustrate how WIM and AVC, when integrated with a HELP system, can provide the states, federal government, and private industry with vital information for a variety of needs such as pavement and fleet management. This paper presents the goals of the projects, the organization, and the potential benefits and impacts. Henscher, David A. "Electronic Toll Collection." Transportation Research 25A (No. 1, January 1991): 9-16. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 8 ECO NORTHWEST This article reviews the technology and results involved in various electronic toll collection projects. Holland, Edward P. and Peter L. Watson. "The Design of Traffic Pricing Schemes." Transportation Engineering 48 (No. 2, February 1978): 32-38. This paper, based on research and on concurrent discussions with Singapore India officials, highlights factors that need to be considered in deciding whether to use road pricing in any specific city and in developing a detailed design for specific circumstances and objectives. Johnston, Robert A., Mark A. DeLuchi, Daniel Sperling, and Paul P. Craig. "Automating Urban Freeways: Policy Research Agenda." Journal of Transportation Engineering 116 (4 1990): 442-460. Population growth, continuing suburbanization, and higher labor force-participation rates, combined with a virtual halt in new freeway construction, have led to rapid increases in traffic congestion in the U.S. This congestion is costly; for example, the cost of highway congestion in the Los Angeles region is estimated to be $3.6 billion per year. Roughly half of this congestion is estimated to be caused by incidents, and 63% is on freeways. Automated freeways have been proposed as a solution to urban traffic congestion. This paper describes the staged development of automated urban freeways and then suggests a series of research topics related to the major policy issues of road capacity, air quality, noise, safety and liability, cost and equity, privacy, and organizational complexity. These difficult questions should be resolved before public acceptance for the technology is sought. Policy research on these matters should be carried out before or at the same time as the technology is being developed. Jones, Peter M. and Arild Hervik. "Restraining Car Traffic in European Cities: An Emerging Role for Road Pricing." Transportation Research 26A (No. 2, March 1992): 133-145. Urban traffic problems are now a key political issue in most European countries; in terms of congestion, road safety, and the environment. The response to date in many cities has been to rely on parking controls, better traffic management, and congestion itself to contain traffic. . Increasingly, in the larger cities, some form of direct restraint on traffic levels will be necessary as car ownership continues to rise. The paper first assesses a number of non-pricing restraint measures, including restrictions on traffic speed and network capacity, and regulatory controls on access. It then considers what role road pricing might play. Three objectives are identified, and a number of key factors affecting implementation are discussed, including technology, privacy, equity, and the allocation of revenues. One aspect where there is little empirical evidence concerns likely response of drivers to road charges, ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 9 ECO NORTHWEST and the size of the elasticities. Drawing on experience from a number of toll schemes in Norway, some new evidence on driver response is presented. This paper concludes by summarizing current developments regarding road pricing in different European countries, and assesses the potential of the measure as a demand management tool in the future. Kacir, Kent, Jeff Memmott, and Robert Ruffley. Feasibility of Congestion Pricing as an Energy Conservation Measure. The Texas Transportation Institute, 1993. Study Number 60029. This report is a feasibility study on the potential of congestion pricing as an energy conservation measure. Although congestion pricing entails many different strategies or schemes, this report primarily focuses on road pricing for highway type facilities. This report evaluates existing and planned toll roads for their involvement with automated vehicle identification and electronic toll collection as these two technologies are viewed as a vital element in any congestion pricing program or scheme. The economic feasibility of congestion pricing is evaluated. Case studies are made in Singapore, Hong Kong, and Oslo, Norway. The impact on fuel consumption is made using a freeway simulation model, focusing on using the HOV lane as a congestion priced facility. Klein, Daniel B. and Gordon J. Fielding. "Private Toll Roads: Learning from the 19th Century." Transportation Quarterly 46 (July 1992). This paper contrasts modern private toll-road projects with those of the 19th century. The purpose is to clarify the objectives of toll road corporations and to show how the business and fiscal environment affect whether such corporations will operate. Just as actions taken in the 1790's greatly influenced a movement lasting over a century, the success or failure of private toll roads in the 1990's may determine the future of American road building. Kraus, Marvin. "The Welfare Gains from Pricing Road Congestion Using Automatic Vehicle Identification and On-Vehicle Meters." Journal of Urban Economics 25 (3 1989): 261-281. It is a widely accepted proposition that there is general underpricing of auto travel in U.S. cities. For most urban auto travel, tolls consist almost entirely of the gasoline excise tax. The purpose of this study is to estimate the welfare gains which are possible under different regimes for imposing higher auto tolls in urban areas. The three regimes studied are associated with a higher gas tax and systems called automatic vehicle identification, and on-vehicle metering. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 10 ECO NORTHWEST Lampe, Andrew J. "Effects of Road Access Pricing at the Los Angeles Airport: A Case Study. ITE Journal 63 (Number 12, December 1993): 22-24. As a result of increasing congestion at the terminal, LAX installed an AVI system to reduce traffic congestion and, at the same time, maximize revenues. The system installation was completed in 1990. All commercial vehicles (including hotel courtesy vans, taxis, limousines, and shuttle buses) are assessed a fee each time they make an appearance at the airport. This paper describes the system operation and results. Lauridsen, Henning. The Toll Rings in Bergen and Oslo: Evolution and Experience. Paper presented at the East Europe Transport Policy Seminar, Paris, France., 1990. This paper assesses two functioning toll road systems in Norway, discussing the effects of traffic and revenues of various pricing schedules and the manual versus electronic aspects of the projects. Mathieu, Dave. "WIM and Electronic Truck Monitoring Gets Rave Reviews in State of Oregon." Weighing and Measurement 69 (August 1985): 1217. This article discusses the results of the Oregon demonstration project and other experience of weigh-in-motion (WIM) and automatic vehicle identification (AVI) systems. May, Anthony D. "Traffic Restraint: A Review of the Alternatives." Transportation Research 20A (No. 2, March 1986): 109-121. This paper draws upon a wide range of international experiences to assess the role that road pricing may play as a means of urban traffic restraint. It considers why restraint policies have not been more widely adopted in the face of mounting urban transport problems and identifies the major difficulties in implementation. A number of restraint policies are available and these are compared, using a range of criteria, as potential tools of transport policy. The conclusion which emerges is that, although the general case for restraint is more complex than many simplistic analyses have suggested, where there is a case for its introduction, road pricing, in a fairly simple form, offers the most effective approach. Finally, consideration is given to the future research needs into restraint measures. May, Anthony D. "International Experiences with Congestion Pricing." ITE Journal 63 (Number 12, December 1993): 14-20. This article provides an overview of developments outside the United States by assessing the objectives of congestion pricing; the types of systems envisaged; the benefits, both actual and potential; and the ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 11 ECO NORTHWEST factors that have led to its rejection. The article concludes with a brief assessment of the potential for future implementation. May, Anthony D. "Potential of Next Generation Technology." In Curbing Gridlock, ed. National Research Council. Pages 405- 463. Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1994. The purpose of this paper is to review the capability of technology to provide for the kinds of pricing (of urban congestion) that economists assume in the best case--the ability to vary prices with changes in conditions and to communicate this information to drivers so that they have genuine price signals in advance of making their decision about route or trip timing. The scope of the paper includes point and cordon pricing, pricing based on time and distance, as well as parking pricing. Menon, A.P. Gopinath, Sol-Hol Lam, and Henry S.L. Fan. "Singapore's Road Pricing System: Its Past, Present and Future." ITE Journal 63 (Number 12, December 1993): 44-48. Singapore is the first city in the world to implement a cordon road pricing system, the Area Licensing Scheme. The system was implemented in June 1975 and originally was aimed at discouraging automobile commuting. Pricing control was only applied during the morning peak hours, to private cars and taxis. In 1989, this goal was revised to incorporate traffic management to curtail congestion. This paper describes the implementation and results of this system. Oldridge, Brian. Congestion Metering in Cambridge City. Cambridgeshire County Council, Cambridge, 1991. Paper presented at the PTRC Conference on "Practical Possibilities for a Comprehensive Transport Policy With or Without Road Pricing." This paper discusses the demonstration project proposed for Cambridge, which will involve electronic congestion meters installed in vehicles. Vehicles, once entering the cordon ring around the city, will have their transponders turned on automatically when they encounter congestion. The meter stops charging only when the vehicle leaves the cordon or the engine is switched off. Olson, David J. "Pricing Urban Roadways; Administrative and Institutional Issues." In Curbing Gridlock ed. National Research Council. Pages 216249. Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1994. This paper attempts to move beyond the economic and technical dialogue over congestion pricing to address the implications for congestion pricing of institutional, administrative, and political issues. The author gives a broad overview of alternative institutional arrangements available to various metropolitan area organizations. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 12 ECO NORTHWEST Pietrzyk, Michael C. 'Electronic Toll Collection Systems." In Curbing Gridlock, ed. National Research Council. Pages 464- 501. Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1994. This paper describes the technology available for a variety of electronic toll collection systems. It discusses design considerations, institutional and implementation issues, cost considerations, payment options, privacy issues, and future trends in the industry. The paper includes a listing of current electronic toll projects containing program descriptions, and specifications. Poole, R.W., Jr. "Resolving Gridlock in Southern California." Transportation Quarterly 42 (No. 4, October 1988): 499-527. This paper argues that no more freeways should be built in Southern California, rather, all new capacity should be tollways, employing electronic toll collection, built and operated by private enterprise rather than government. Direct pricing on freeways would have three important advantages: (1) reduced demand for freeway access, (2) shifting demand to off- peak periods, and (3) raising revenue for increased capacity. Europe and the Pacific Rim countries contain many more privately run toll roads than the US. In fact the Channel Tunnel, between Britain and France goes one step further than most of these projects in that it involves no government financing, guarantees, and ownership will not revert to government. With the scheduled termination of the federal Interstate Highway program, these programs are provoking increasing interest in the US as well. This article provides an introduction and examples for all of these concepts. Poole, R.W., Jr. Introducing Congestion Pricing on a New Road. 1991. Paper prepared for the Conference on Congestion Pricing, University of California Transportation Center. The political risks of charging for freeway use suggest the need for demonstration projects, both to introduce the public to the idea of congestion pricing and to collect data so as to quantify its effects. This paper proposes a specific demonstration project in Southern California. Orange County, part of the greater Los Angeles metro area, has five new toll road projects under development: two private and three public. Two of these projects will begin construction before the end of 1992. The private project to add HOV/toll lanes to SR 91 already plans to use congestion pricing. This paper suggests that the public San Joaquin Hills Toll Corridor also adopt this technique, rather than the flat-rate tolls currently planned. Public Works Department. Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) System. Ministry of National Development, Singapore, 1990. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 13 ECO NORTHWEST Discussion document concerning ongoing Singapore traffic control measures. Ratan, Suneel. "Traffic-Free Roads." Fortune April 5 1993, 83. This article reports on electronic developments in charging for road use and points to the most recent example of a private toll road, in Orange County, California, planned to go down the median of Route 91. Smoke, Paul J. The Procurement, Installation, and Implementation of an Electronic Toll Collection and AVI System on the Gross lsle Toll Bridge, Gross Isle, Michigan. 1990. Paper presented to the International Bridge, Tunnel and Turnpike Association Authority International Symposium on AVI Technology for Toll Collection, New York, New York. Discusses the practical issues involved in setting up an automatic tolling system, using AVI technology, on the Gross Isle, Michigan, bridge. Sommerville, Fraser. "Applications of Automatic Vehicle Identification Technology." Transport Reviews 11 (No. 2 1991):173-191. Thorpe, Neil and Peter J. Hills. "Pricing and Monitoring Electronically of Automobiles, The DRIVE Project PAMELA: 2. The Scope of Automated Pricing Systems." Traffic Engineering and Control 32 (Nos. 7/8, August 1991): 364-370. This paper is the second in a series of three describing the research being undertaken by the PAMELA consortium under the European Commission's DRIVE program. In this paper two approaches to the operation of road-use pricing are discussed -- namely, discrete zone-based charging and continuous pricing based on congestion monitoring. However, to provide a longer-term solution to congestion, it is argued that a charging system is required that is more able to reflect the variable nature of the costs of congestion. By incorporating the automatic debiting system being developed by the PAMELA consortium with on-board devices capable of monitoring the prevailing level of congestion, a system can be devised that is able to charge road users directly in relation to the congestion they cause, as and when they cause it. Transpotech. Electronic Road Pricing in Hong Kong, Pilot Stage: Economic Background and An Example. 1983. Technical Paper 1. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 14 ECO NORTHWEST Background paper prepared for the Hong Kong Government discussing AVI technology, the parameters of the proposed project, expected results. Transpotech. Electronic Road Pricing Pilot Scheme: Main Report. 198-5. Main Report prepared for the Hong Kong Government discussing the strategy and approach of the demonstration project. Waersted, K. Automatic Toll Ring No Stop Electronic Payment Systems in Norway: Systems Layout and Full Scale Experiences. 1992. Paper presented at the Sixth IEE International Conference on Road Traffic Monitoring and Control, London, England. Discusses the experience gathered from the Trondheim Toll Ring. Approximately 90 percent of the users of the toll facility during the peak morning rush hour and 85 percent of the secondary, shoulder peak are electronic tag holders. Washington State Transportation Commission Innovations Unit. Congestion Pricing: A Transportation Demand Management Study. Washington State Transportation Commission, 1994. Draft. Final Report 94.1. Congestion pricing is a transportation demand strategy that seeks to reduce roadway use during congested periods by imposing a direct dis-incentive--a fee. This report describes the theory as well as the history of congestion pricing, implementation concepts and technologies, pricing guidelines, and potential benefits and risks. Wuestefeld, Norman H. "Toll Roads." Transportation Quarterly 42 (No. 1, January 1988): 5-22. This article discusses types of modern toll roads, their rates and how they were financed. The author explores the advantages and disadvantages of the toll concept and analyzes the conditions for a successful toll road, concluding that public/private partnerships will be increasingly important in the toll roads of the future. Zupan, Jeffrey. "The New York Region: First in Tolls, Last in Road Pricing?" In Curbing Gridlock, ed. National Research Council. 200-215. 2. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1994. Experiences with tolls in the New York metropolitan area are reviewed. Over 45 percent of the $3.7 billion in U.S. toll revenue is collected in New York and New Jersey. The Port Authority owns and operates six tolled bridge and tunnel crossings connecting the two states. Seven more are operated by the Tri-borough Bridge and Tunnel Authority. There are many tolled facilities throughout the rest of the state as well. Discounts for bulk use have always been in effect on the Port Authority crossings, effectively giving the peak period user a price ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 15 ECO NORTHWEST break. The difficulty of changing this situation 's explored, implementation issues discussed, and benefits of congestion pricing examined. PARKING CHARGES OR RESTRICTIONS Adler, Moshe. "Street Parking: The Case for Communal Parking." Logistics and Transportation Review 21 (1985): 375-387. Depending on who uses it, parking on the street is governed by three different systems of property rights. For people who are not residents of the neighborhoods where they park (commuters), street parking is communal property. There is a limit on the time that they are allowed to park in one spot, and the allocation is on a "first come, first served" basis. For people who park in their own neighborhoods (residents) and have residential parking permits, parking is semi-private property. The permits allow unrestricted residents' parking, whereas time limits apply to all others. For people who have garages, street parking is almost private property. Street parking is, then, a case of a wide spectrum of property rights in one and the same good. Is one preferred to the other? This question is the subject of this paper. One answer is that communal property produces a more efficient allocation of street parking near attraction centers than the two variants of private property do. The criterion that is used for ranking allocations of parking is derived from a "willingness to pay for parking" model, and is independent of the system of property rights. Arnott, Richard, Andr de Palma, and Robin Lindsey. 'A Temporal and Spatial Equilibrium Analysis of Commuter Parking." Journal of Public Economics 45 (3 1991): 301-335. This paper examines the effects of parking availability on morning rush hour congestion and assesses the relative efficiency of road tolls and parking fees. Without pricing, drivers occupy parking in order of increasing distance from the CBD. A time-varying toll can prevent queuing, but does not affect the order in which parking spots are taken. Optimal location-dependent parking fees may be superior; they do not eliminate queuing, but induce drivers to park in order of decreasing distance from the CBD, thereby concentrating arrival times closer to work start times. Competitively set parking fees do nothing to reduce queuing, and are relatively inefficient. Bhatt, Kiran. "Subsidizing Congestion: Urban Parking Policies." Journal of Contemporary Studies IV (No. 2, Spring 1981) This article reviews urban parking policies and finds they are in part responsible for congestion in the urban core. Through the ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 16 ECO NORTHWEST underpricing of parking, commuting is encouraged and mode splits worsen. In addition, employer-paid parking provides a substantial dis-incentive to ridesharing programs and transit use. Bhatt, Kiran. "Review of Transportation Allowance Programs." Transportation Research Record 1321 (1991) Innovative transportation allowance programs that are increasingly being considered and adopted by localities to increase ridesharing among commuters are reviewed. The focus is on programs that go beyond traditional and straightforward transit and parking subsidy programs for employees by incorporating innovative elements aimed at enhancing high- occupancy vehicle use or developing innovative administrative procedures. The review addresses transit and vanpool scrip allowances, carpool parking allowances, parking allowances varying with automobile occupancies, and general travel allowances that commuters can use as desired. The review suggests that while some, but not all, of these innovative programs generate additional costs, they hold the promise to bring about significant shifts from solo driving to ridesharing among commuters. The acceptance by employers and employees affected by many of these innovative programs has been slow but positive in particular situations. When the desire and need to reduce solo driving among employees are strong, many of these transportation allowance programs offer potential solutions. Bhatt, Kiran. Experience Relating to Congestion and Parking Pricing. Air Pollution Officers Association, Oakland, California, 1992. In conference proceedings, Market-Based Transportation Control: Strategies for the 90's. This paper discusses the effects subsidized or "free" parking policies have on congestion and air quality. Burns, Malcolm R. and David J. Faurot. 'An Econometric Forecasting Model of Revenues from Urban Parking Facilities." Journal of Economics and Business 44 (1992): 143-150. This article develops an econometric forecasting model for the revenues of a business firm. The model is estimated from the revenues of two parking facilities in Kansas City. Parking revenues are a function of local economic activity, seasonal factors, and facility specific events. The analysis can make long-term forecasts directly or augment an ARIMA model for more accurate short-term forecasts. Because it uses data that appear to be widely available, the analysis may be applicable to forecasting and valuation projects for a variety of retail businesses. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 17 ECO NORTHWEST Burns, Robert E. "Urban Road Pricing Through Selective Parking Taxes." Transportation Engineering Journal 98 (November 1972): 739-755. This article suggests that transportation use can be affected through parking taxes changing the relative value of travel. Comsis Corporation and The Institute of Transportation Engineers. Implementing Effective Travel Demand Management Measures. Federal Highway Administration and Federal Transit Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, 1993. Final Report DOT-T-94-02. The document reviews many travel demand management alternatives including road pricing, parking policies, and other user charges. Feeney, B.P. "A Review of the Impact of Parking Policy Measures on Travel Demand." Transportation Planning and Technology 13 (1989): 229-244. This paper reviews the empirical evidence relating to the impact of parking policy measures on the demand for parking and for travel. Dis-aggregate modal choice models, dis- aggregate parking location models and site-specific studies of parking behavior are examined. With regard to modal choice models, it is concluded that few studies deal adequately with parking factors, but that there is some support for the view that parking policy measures are a relatively important influence on modal choice. When parking location models are examined, parking policy variables are shown to have a substantial impact on choice of parking location. With regard to site-specific studies, the paper concludes that there is a great variation in the parking price elasticities quoted, which reflects partly the methodological problems associated,with such studies. Suggestions to improve model specification are made. Ferguson, E. "The Influence of Employer Ridesharing Programs on Employee Mode Choice." Transportation 17 (1990): 179-207. Employer ridesharing programs and employee mode choice were analyzed using Southern California data. Virtually all surveyed firms offered free or subsidized parking to some or all of their employees. Few responding firms estimated the cost of providing employee parking accurately, if at all. The influence of employer ridesharing programs on employee mode choice was modeled using weighted least squares logit regression analysis. Firm size was found to be the single most important variable identified in the analysis. Larger firms were more likely to offer ridesharing incentives to their employees, and to report direct employer benefits from ridesharing. Relatively few firms promoted ridesharing on a purely voluntary basis. A private market for employer ridesharing services was found to exist, however. Parking pricing and supply control measures probably would have a larger impact on employee mode split overall. Parking management ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 18 ECO NORTHWEST faces severe obstacles in implementation, some of which might be overcome through the more extensive provision of ridesharing services, such as personalized matching assistance to employees at specific employment sites by their employers. Gillen, David. "Estimation and Specification of the Effects of Parking Costs on Urban Transport Mode Choice." Journal of Urban Economics 4 (1977): 186-199. The author develops a model of transportation behavior and mode split employing variable rates of parking as the main behavioral driver. Glazer, Amihai and Esko Niskanen. "Parking Fees and Congestion." Regional Science and Urban Economics 22 (1992): 123-132. Congestion can be caused by through-traffic and by traffic destined for the area where consumers park. It may appear that congestion should be reduced by increasing the price of parking. This paper shows that if road usage is sub-optimally priced, than a lump-sum parking fee can increase welfare, but a parking fee per unit of time does not. Indeed, an increase in the price of parking induces each person to park for a shorter time, allows more persons to use parking spaces each day, and can thereby increase traffic. For the same reason, consumers may prefer that parking not be free. Hackman, Lonnie and Norene D. Martin. The Parking Industry: Private Enterprise for the Public Good. Washington, D.C.: National Parking Association, 1969. This book provides a comprehensive background to the development of the parking industry. Haworth, S. and I.C. Hilton. 'Parking Elasticity: A Tool for Policy Implementation?" Traffic Engineering and Control 23 (No. 7/8 1982). This article evaluates the car parking policies of Manchester City Council in establishing scales of parking charges. Scales of charges were introduced to increase revenue and to reduce deficits attributable to six car parks within the context of a policy to maximize usage of an available central-area parking space. An analysis of the patronage of 1-2 hour parking users shows how the response directly follows individual charges. This example 'shows the detailed control of users' response possible through price regulation for a specific length of stay at a particular car park. Problems of maximizing revenue from car parking in the short term, insufficient opportunity for trials of different charging levels, and the long term problems of changing population densities and business activities are discussed. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 19 ECO NORTHWEST Hazell, Martin B. "Permit Programs Increase On-street Parking Availability in Residential Areas." ITE Journal May (1992): 29-32. In response to resident's concerns about the lack of available on-street parking in the vicinity of their homes, the City of Hamilton (Canada) has enacted several different programs to increase the availability of parking for residents on local residential streets. Two of these programs involve the issuance of on-street parking permits to residents and are based on the principle of eliminating long-term nonresident parking. The parameters and results of these measures are discussed. Higgins, Thomas. "Parking Management and Traffic Mitigation in Six Cities: Implications for Local Policy." Transportation Research Record 1232 (1989). Local jurisdictions are using parking management and traffic mitigation policies to discourage solo driving and encourage transit, ridesharing, cycling, and other alternatives. This paper focuses on selected policies in six cities, including parking code requirements, encouragements for fringe or peripheral parking, preferential parking for car poolers, and requirements on new office developments (e.g., through developer agreements) for owner-sponsored traffic mitigations. The review examines the status of current parking management and traffic mitigation policies and issues of implementation and effectiveness, drawing policy implications for localities. Higgins, Thomas. "Demand Management in Suburban Settings: Effectiveness and Policy Considerations." Transportation 17 (No. 2 1990): 93-116. Relying on a review of employer based programs in 26 cities, as well as selected literature, the paper draws conclusions about the effectiveness of employer based transportation systems management (programs to encourage car pooling, transit, biking, cycling, walking and flextime) and parking management (preferential parking for car poolers, removal of parking subsidies, and other measures) aimed at reducing solo driving and peak period commuting. It was found that demand management programs can be effective in reducing traffic congestion, provided they are targeted to larger employment centers, accompanied by transit development, high occupancy vehicle incentives and parking management strategies, especially pricing. Flextime may discourage ridesharing. Guaranteed ride home services appear promising and deserve attention. With all strategies, long term vigilance will be necessary as programs are susceptible to change over time. Ordinances should require plans rather than specific strategies, as it is difficult estimating the probable effectiveness of particular strategies. Ordinances should contain sanctions for employers not carrying out ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 20 ECO NORTHWEST agreed-to plans, and should include fees and financing to support public sector review of plans and on-going monitoring. Higgins, Thomas. "Parking Taxes: Effectiveness, Legality and Implementation, Some General Considerations." Transportation Number 19 (1992): 221-230. This paper evaluates the pros and cons of implementing parking pricing to reduce auto use and traffic through parking taxes. Taxes on parkers and the providers are evaluated in terms of effectiveness in influencing auto use, operations of the tax, and the legality as well as acceptability of the options. The intent is to help local governments evaluate parking tax approaches. Higgins, Thomas and Gerald Miller. Implementing Parking Pricing Strategies. 1983. Urban Institute Paper 3161-1. Various parking pricing strategies are evaluated on the basis of how they affect traffic, what their effects on revenue generation are, and the distributional and welfare effects on different classes of users. Howitt, Arnold M.."Downtown Auto Restraint Policies: Adopting and Implementing Urban Transportation Innovation." Journal of Transport Economics and Policy_ 14 (1980): 155-167. This paper explores the apparent anomaly of auto restraint measures being recommended as beneficial by many transport planners, yet experiencing intense public resistance. The conclusion is that the public and decision-makers react not merely to the net benefits or costs of a policy option--the economist's evaluative criterion--but also to the distribution and visibility of its impact. As a result, auto restraint policies are "fragile" policy initiatives particularly vulnerable to political opposition and institutional inertia. Jones, Peter M. and Arild Hervik. "Restraining Car Traffic in European Cities: An Emerging Role for Road Pricing." Transportation Research 26A (No. 2, March 1992): 133-145. Urban traffic problems are now a key political issue in most European countries in terms of congestion, road safety, and the environment. The response to date has been to rely on parking controls, better traffic management, and congestion itself to contain traffic. Increasingly, in the larger cities, some form of direct restraint on traffic levels will be necessary as car ownership continues to rise. The paper first assesses a number of non-pricing restraint measures, including restrictions on traffic speed and network capacity, and regulatory controls on access. It then considers what role road pricing might play. Three objectives are identified, and a number of key factors affecting implementation are discussed, including technology, privacy, equity, and the allocation of ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 21 ECO NORTHWEST revenues. One aspect where there is little empirical evidence concerns likely response of drivers to road charges, and the size of the elasticities. Drawing on experience from a number of toll schemes in Norway, some new evidence on driver response is presented. This paper concludes by summarizing current developments regarding road pricing in different European countries, and assesses the potential of the measure as a demand management tool in the future. Kenyon, K. "Increasing Mode Split through Parking Management: A Suburban Success Story." Transportation Research Record 980 (1984): 65-69. Accommodating commuter trips in rapidly growing suburban cities that do not have high levels of transit service is a difficult challenge. Many cities, including Bellevue, Washington, must face this challenge if development is to continue at the current rapid pace. A new employee transportation program at 450 Bell Terrace, the first building in downtown Bellevue to be constructed under the terms of a new zoning code, is described. The transportation program, serving 900 Pacific Northwest Bell Telephone employees, includes a substantial ($60 per month) parking fee as a disincentive to drive-alone commuting and discounted or free parking for carpools. Parking demand must be accommodated by 410 parking stalls in the monitored Bell Terrace parking garage. The intensive assistance provided by the Commuter Pool Program (the regional ridesharing program) and by the city of Bellevue ridesharing staff was instrumental in achieving a 60 percent employee carpool participation rate. Only 19 percent of the employees are driving alone to work. Seventeen percent use transit. Other factors critical to success are the ability of a single firm to coordinate a program and the predisposition of employees accustomed to high levels of transit service in Seattle to form carpools in Bellevue. Kessler, Jon and William Schroeer. Meeting Mobility and Air Quality Goals: Strategies that Work. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Policy Analysis, 1993. Draft report. Recent federal legislation sets tough Air quality goals for the nation but offers scant guidance to urban areas responsible for meeting those goals. Traditionally, transportation-related air quality policy emphasized cleaner vehicle and fuels technologies and alternatives to single- occupant vehicle travel such as car pooling and mass transit. Analysis suggests, however, that meeting air quality goals will require the addition of policies to manage the growing demand for transportation. The introduction of market forces into- transportation supply and demand decisions would support traditional transportation and air quality strategies, and produce additional mobility, air quality, and economic benefits. Recent transportation legislation offers states ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 22 ECO NORTHWEST and localities the flexibility to meet mobility and air quality goals in an innovative, non-traditional manner. Drawing on theoretical analysis and recent empirical evidence this paper offers a package of measures for the consideration of state, local, and federal policy-makers. Kulash, Damian. Parking Taxes as Roadway Prices: A Case Study of the San Francisco Experience. The Urban Institute, 1974. Paper No. VI, WP 1212-9. This paper presents an ex post facto analysis of the impacts of a 25% parking tax which was in effect in San Francisco from October 1, 1970 to June 30, 1972. It develops parking price elasticity estimates for various types of parking facility. It found that commuters demonstrated greater sensitivity to the price changes than did shoppers, but the overall effect on the number of parking stall occupancies was relatively slight. The impact on parking lot profitability was found to be severe. Because of the small effect on parking lot usage, the parking tax had little influence on problems of congestion, air pollution, and energy consumption. There was no evidence of any harm to downtown businesses (other than parking lots) which could be traced to the tax. May, Anthony D. "Traffic Restraint: A Review of the Alternatives." Transportation Research 20A (No. 2, March 1986): 109-121. This paper draws upon a wide range of international experiences to assess the role that road pricing may play as a means of urban traffic restraint. It considers why restraint policies have not been more widely adopted in the face of mounting urban transport problems and identifies the major difficulties in implementation. A number of restraint policies are available and these are compared, using a range of criteria, as potential tools of transport policy. The conclusion which emerges is that, although the general case for restraint is more complex than many simplistic analyses have suggested, where there is a case for its introduction, road pricing, in a fairly simple form, offers the most effective approach. Finally, consideration is given to the future research needs into restraint measures. May, Anthony D. "Potential of Next Generation Technology." In Curbing Gridlock, ed. National Research Council. Pages 405- 463. Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1994. The purpose of this paper is to review the capability of technology to provide for the kinds of pricing (of urban congestion) that economists assume in the best case--the ability to vary prices with changes in conditions and to communicate this information to drivers so that they have genuine price signals in advance of making their decision about route or trip timing. The scope of the paper includes point and ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 23 ECO NORTHWEST cordon pricing, pricing based on time and distance, as well as parking pricing. Miller, Gerald K. and Carol T. Everett. "Raising Commuter Parking Prices -An Empirical Study." Transportation 11 (1982): 105- 129. In November 1979, federal employees at many government facilities in Washington, D.C., and other major cities began to pay one-half of nearby commercial parking rates for government-controlled parking spaces. This paper presents the impacts of the parking price increases on commuting behavior at a sample of 15 worksites in metropolitan Washington, DC, and discusses their short term planning and policy implications. A "before and after with control group" survey design monitored the effects on modal shifts, automobile occupancy, and parking behavior. The results showed that removing free parking and raising parking rates (from $10 to $32 per month) influenced some significant shifts to higher- occupancy modes, but that the shifts were not uniform in direction or magnitude across the sites. In addition, the study examined how locational, travel, and employee factors influenced the modal shifts. Pickrell, Don H. and Donald C. Shoup. "Land Use Zoning as Transportation Regulation." -Transportation Research Record 786 (1980): 12-17. Land use zoning, which is frequently relied on to improve resource allocation in the land market itself, is also used to indirectly regulate the urban transportation market. The effects of one of the means by which it does so, the requirement for a minimum amount of off-street parking space in conjunction with new commercial development, are discussed. Evidence is demonstrated that this minimum amount of parking is well above what the land market would supply in the absence of such requirements. The result is to depress the market price of parking to a level below the cost of its supply. This indirect regulation of the price of parking has several consequences, principally an increase in the number of trips made by automobile. Aside from their effects on the urban transportation market, parking requirements may also cause distortions in the urban land market. In effect, they can impose a "tax" on new development, which not only slows the redevelopment of older areas but may also alter the spatial pattern of new development in undesirable ways. Unwisely used, land market controls can thus aggravate some of the transportation, and other, problems they are intended to solve. This illustrates the potential hazard of attempts to remedy urban transportation problems indirectly-for example, by intervention in the land market rather than direct intervention in the transportation market itself. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 24 ECO NORTHWEST Puget Sound Regional Council. Parking Inventory for Seattle and Bellevue: 1992. Puget Sound Regional Council, 1992. An inventory of parking stalls, occupancy, and cost was conducted for 19 Traffic Analysis Zones in downtown Seattle and six zones in downtown Bellevue in April-May of 1992, as an update to surveys completed in 1987 and 1989. Roth, Gabriel J. Paying for Parking. London: Institute of Economic Affairs Ltd., 1965. Early exploration of the effects of parking prices on urban planning, land use development, and transportation patterns. Savage, Ian. "The Analysis of Bus Costs and Revenues by Time Period: ][I. Methodology Review." Transport Reviews 9 (1989): 1-17. This article develops a transit revenue model for bus fleet operations. Segelhorst, Elbert W. and Larry D. Kirkus. "Parking Bias in Transit Choice." Journal of Transport Economics and Policy (January 1973): 58-70. The rush-hour private car commuter often pays in user charges only a small fraction of the marginal costs he imposes on the rest of the community. The subsidy is paid by off-peak users of the same facilities, by users of rural arterial highways, and by the community through failure to charge rental (interest and depreciation) for much of the street and highway area used or taxes (property and profit taxes) on the capital invested. Provision of free parking for employees and customers is an additional subsidy that further distorts price below resource cost. Various solutions to correct the price-cost distortion of the parking subsidy are discussed, and one measure to address the issue is explored in depth. With the establishment of a transit district, a choice of an equal subsidy for transit is offered to those who presently receive free parking. The paper discusses the expected results of this program for Los Angeles, CA. Shoup, Donald C. Cashing Out Employer-Paid Parking. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C.,, 1992. Publication No. FTA-CA-11-0035-92-1. Employer-paid parking increases traffic congestion, air pollution,, and energy consumption. The author proposes a minor change in the Internal Revenue Code to require employers who subsidize employee parking to offer the option to their employees to take a taxable cash travel allowance equal to the fair market value of the parking subsidy. Studies suggest this could reduce solo commuting by 20 percent. Shoup, Donald C. 'Cashing In On Curb Parking." Access 4 (Spring 1994 a): 2026. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 25 ECO NORTHWEST By imposing minimum parking requirements, the author believes planners have inadvertently increased automobile dependency and decreased urban density. Current parking requirements are implicitly based on the demand observed at zero price, as motorists report paying nothing for 99 percent of all trips and parking requirements are based on observing the number of cars parked at existing land uses. The author argues that spill over of parking into nearby neighborhoods is not caused by a shortage of off-street parking, but by the government's failure to charge an appropriate price for curb parking. He makes several suggestions for implementing market prices for curb parking and how to most effectively use the revenue thus raised. Shoup, Donald C. "Cashing Out Employer-Paid Parking: A Precedent for Congestion Pricing?" Transportation Research Board Special Report 242 (1994 b): 152-199. Almost all parking in the United States is provided free to the user. In the 1990 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey, motorists reported receiving free parking for 99% of all automobile trips. Because the average car is parked 95% of the time, it seems clear that, in most cases, congestion tolls would charge motorists for the use of roads during the brief time they are traveling between free parking spaces. In considering the potential benefits of congestion pricing, previous research on parking pricing provides useful evidence that automobile use is surprisingly sensitive to parking price. The purpose of this study is to (a) present the evidence from parking studies on the price elasticity of demand for automobile travel ' (b) explore how employer paid parking subsidies contribute to , the problems that congestion tolls are meant to solve, (c) propose a policy to "cash out" employer-paid parking subsidies, (d) explain California's new parking cash-out legislation, and (e) describe some early results of the California legislation and speculate on how it may serve as a precedent for implementing congestion pricing. Shoup, Donald C. and Don H. Pickrell. Free Parking as a Transportation Problem. Department of Transportation, 1980. Final Report DOT/RSPA/DPB50-80/16. As many as 40 percent of all those commuting by auto to the downtown areas of U.S. and Canadian cities appear to park free at their destinations. This surprisingly widespread practice is a significant but overlooked determinant of mode choice. The study attempts to estimate how many of those who are offered employer subsidized parking decide to drive alone rather than commute by carpool, transit, or another means. The best estimate appears to be that approximately 20 percent of those who now drive alone and receive free parking would form carpools or begin using transit for the trip to work if ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 26 ECO NORTHWEST required to pay for parking. The major incentive for employers to provide free parking appears to be the fact that as a fringe benefit, free parking escapes income taxation. Enforcing the reporting and taxation of its cash value, however, is a difficult and predictably unpopular approach. Instead, this study recommends two policies intended to extend the subsidy for work travel now enjoyed by many drivers, in the form of free parking, to travel by other modes: (1) amend the Internal Revenue Code to permit employers to pay employees a tax-exempt travel allowance in lieu of free or subsidized parking; and (2) extend free parking only to drivers who carpool (e.g., only to autos with three or more occupants). Shoup, Donald C. and Don H. Pickrell. "Problems with Parking Requirements in Zoning Ordinances." Traffic Quarterly 32 (1978): 545-561. Pickrell, Don H. and Donald C. Shoup. "Land Use Zoning as Transportation Regulation." Transportation Research Record 786 (1980):12-17. This paper discusses land use zoning as a non-market method to indirectly regulate the urban transportation market. The requirement for a minimum amount of off-street parking space in conjunction with new commercial development is discussed. The paper illustrates the dangers of attempting to remedy urban transportation problems indirectly, by intervention in the land market rather than direct intervention in the transportation market itself. Shoup, Donald C. and Richard W. Willson. Commuting, Congestion. and Pollution:The Employer-Paid Parking Connection. 1992 a. Paper repared for the Congestion Pricing Symposium, sponsored by the Federal Highway Administration and Federal Transit Administration, Arlington, VA. Parking pricing and congestion pricing are often seen as alternative means to reduce traffic congestion, with parking pricing usually regarded as a potentially useful but rather blunt instrument when compared to congestion tolls. However, parking and congestion pricing can be viewed as complements, not alternatives. Two key concerns are critical to examining traffic congestion policy. First is an estimation of how employer-paid parking, which is an important feature of parking pricing, affects the number of vehicle miles traveled to work, the energy consumed by commuting, and total spending on parking and automobile commuting. Second is an understanding of the role played by the exemption of employer-paid parking subsidies from federal and state taxable income on encouraging single-occupancy commuting. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 27 ECO NORTHWEST Shoup, Donald C. and Richard W. Willson. "Employer-Paid Parking: The Problem and Proposed Solutions." Transportation Quarterly 46 (No., 2, April 1992 b): 169-192. This article outlines the incidence of employer-paid parking and details its effects on congestion, commuting patterns, and externalities such as land use and air quality. Recommendations are offered, including changes in federal and state tax policies to influence commuting behavior. Smith, Wilbur and Associates. Parking in the City Center. New Haven, Connecticut: Wilbur Smith and Associates, 19-65. Early study of the connection between traffic congestion in the central business district and parking policies. Staniewicz, James M. "New Directions in Parking Policy: The New Haven Experience." Transportation Quarterly 43 (2 1989): 193- 213. This article explores several significant changes in public parking policy in the City of New Haven, CT. Parking is one of the hottest topics of discussion in New Haven, particularly the city's ability to maintain its current parking facilities, build new ones, and do so at acceptable levels of fees charged to patrons. Surber, Monica, Donald C. Shoup, and Martin Wachs. "Effects of Ending Employer-Paid Parking for Solo Drivers." Transportation Research Record 957 (1984): 67-71. The change in employee travel choices at a company in Los Angeles that ended employer-paid parking for solo drivers who do not use their cars at work is documented. The modal split among affected employees changed in the following ways: solo driving fell from 42 to 8 percent; car pooling rose from 17 to 58 percent; and bus ridership declined from 38 to 28 percent. There was no change in the modal split at a nearby comparison company that continued to offer free parking to all employees. It is concluded that ending employer-paid parking for solo drivers significantly influenced employees' modal choices. Urban Land Institute and National Parking Association. The Dimensions of Parking. Third ed., Washington, D.C.: LTLI-The Urban Land Institute, 1993. As a land use element, the dimensions of parking have been changing rapidly in recent years. The literal change in the dimensions of the vehicle fleet has opened up new opportunities for changing the dimensions of parking spaces and increasing the efficiency of parking facilities. Parking is a major land use in and of itself, a significant factor in virtually all new developments. In terms of land consumption, surface parking frequently consumes more land than the uses it serves. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 28 ECO NORTHWEST Moreover, structured parking represents a significant cost, so much so that public sector participation in the financing is often the key to the feasibility of a downtown revitalization effort. This publication discusses the cost-effective provision of adequate parking. Emphasis is also given to the fact that ill-conceived facility designs that lack the flexibility to respond to change can damage the present and future economic viability of the land uses they are intended to serve. Weant, Robert A. and Herbert S. Levinson. Parking. Westport, CT: Eno Foundation, 1990. This monograph synthesizes and updates the vast body of literature on parking within the context of current needs, attitudes, and resources. It addresses key questions commonly associated with parking such as how much to provide, where to locate it, costs, and management. This study seeks to provide a benchmark for considering parking decisions and designs -- for developing, financing, and implementing programs for the design of new facilities and the operation of existing ones. Westin, Richard B. and David W. Gillen. "Parking Location and Transit Demand." Journal of Econometrics 8 (1978): 75-101. This paper discusses a simultaneous model of transport mode choice and optimal parking location for the auto mode. In developing this model, four extensions of dis-aggregate choice theory are made that should be useful to other applications. These extensions are: (1) the formulation of an econometric model that allows for continuous endogenous attributes in discrete choice decisions; (2) the use of an econometric estimation technique that is implementable using existing computer programs; (3) the development of an explicit reduced form expansion path cost model of location decisions; and (4) the extension of aggregation procedures to predict both transit demand and the spatial distribution of parking. Willson, Richard W. "Estimating the Travel and Parking Demand Effects of Employer-Paid Parking." Regional Science and Urban Economics 22 (1992):133-145. A multinomial logit model of downtown Los Angeles commuters is used to assess the effect of employer-paid parking on mode choice and parking demand. Employer-paid parking significantly increases the probability that an employee will drive to work alone. The best performance models predict that between 25 and 34 percent fewer automobiles are driven to work when workers have to pay to park, as compared to when they park free. This analysis provides support for the notion that public policies concerning traffic congestion, air pollution and energy use must address employer-paid parking. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 29 ECO NORTHWEST Willson, Richard W and Donald C. Shoup. "Parking Subsidies and Travel Choices:Assessing the Evidence." Transportation 17 (No. 2 1990): 141-157. The article reviews empirical studies of how employer-paid parking affects employees' travel choices. A strong effect is found: parking subsidies greatly increase solo driving. When employers reduce or remove parking subsidies, a significant number of solo drivers shift to carpools and/or transit. This conclusion is based on studies of parking subsidies in a variety of circumstances, including central city and suburban areas, private and public employers, and clerical and professional employees. Three measures are developed to compare changes in commute patterns: changes in the share of solo drivers, changes in the number of autos driven to work per 100 employees, and the parking choice elasticity of demand for solo driving. The studies reviewed here show that 19 to 81 percent fewer employees drive to work alone when they pay for their own parking. Because 90 percent of American commuters who drive to work receive employer-paid parking, these findings are significant for designing transportation policies to reduce air pollution, traffic congestion, and energy consumption. Young, William, Russell G. Thompson, and Michael A.P. Taylor. "'A Review of Urban Car Parking Models." Transport Reviews 11 (1991): 63-84. Car parking is an issue of significance both at the local and at the strategic level of planning. Although the policies that govern the provision and operation of parking facilities are recognized to have an important bearing on the operation of urban transport systems, decisions have often been made on an ad hoc basis, without proper integration with other elements of transport systems analysis. To assist in this integration, this paper presents a review of models of parking as an integral component of urban transport systems. The paper develops model groupings by relating their main objectives: choice, allocation and interaction models. It then discusses the relationship between these structures pointing to a hierarchical suite of models for parking analysis. Models at each level in the hierarchy can be directed at particular policy questions. Taken together as a linked system they can provide a realistic and comprehensive representation of the entire parking system for an area. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 30 ECO NORTHWEST LICENSE FEES Asch, Peter and Joseph J. Seneca. "The Incidence of Automobile Pollution Control." Public Finance Quarterly 6 (No. 2, April 1978): 193-203. The incidence of a vehicle tax to reduce automobile pollution is examined over all affected groups: consumers, stockholders, pollution sufferers, and government expenditure beneficiaries. Gains and losses are estimated under alternative assumptions about industry pricing. The net effect of the tax is regressive if government expenditure benefits are distributed neutrally. Under different expenditure assumptions the tax effect becomes progressive, but the results suggest that a tax on emissions rather than vehicles may be more equitable as well as more efficient. Barrett, Richard. Urban Transport in West Africa. Vol. No. 81. World Bank Technical Paper series, Urban Transport Series, Washington DC: World Bank,1988. This paper discusses the strengths and weaknesses of urban transport systems in West Africa, which are grossly inadequate to meet the needs of the existing urban population because much of the infrastructure dates back to colonial times and has not been adequately maintained or improved. The author analyzes the urban transport constraints in eight cities in West Africa examining the background of transport systems and trends; strengths and weaknesses of transportation; and the World Bank's experiences, role, "and strategy. The author identifies the following policy issues that must be addressed if the urban transport system is to be improved: (1) cost recovery and mobilization of resources through motor vehicle and fuel taxes, user charges, and parking tariffs and fines; (2) improving transport services by improving privately owned bus companies and granting incentives to private operators; (3) improving the efficiency of road transport, including road maintenance and traffic management; and (4) institutional development such as establishing road maintenance and traffic management units. Cambridge Systematics Inc. An Analysis of Central Area Pricing to Reduce Manhattan CBD Traffic. CSI, Cambridge, MA, 1986. This report explores various pricing schemes and their effects on traffic through the central business district in New York. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 31 ECO NORTHWEST Davies, Peter and Fraser K. Sommerville. "Development of Heavy- Vehicle Electronic License Plate Concept." Transportation Research Record No. 1060 (1986):121-127. Described in this paper is the current progress of the work undertaken by the authors on the development of a heavy- vehicle electronic license plate (HELP) system in the United States, combining automatic vehicle identification (AVI), weight-in-motion (WIM), automatic vehicle classification, and data communications and processing. A summary is provided of the results of the studies on the technical and economic feasibility of the HELP concept, and its further development before a multi-state demonstration project, known as the Crescent Project. The format and content of the coded information stored in the identification tag attached to vehicles is also discussed. A summary of the cost-benefit analysis and the proposed implementation strategy leading to the demonstration project is also included. Department of the Environment. A Study of Some Methods of Traffic Restraint: Summary Report. Crown, United Kingdom, 1976. Research Report No. 15. This document outlines several courses of action to address traffic problems, including parking restrictions, licensing requirements, and other regulatory methods. Eskeland, Gunnar S. "Attacking Air Pollution in Mexico City." Finance & Development (December 1992): 28-30. The Mexican government has moved quickly in recent years to attack its severe air pollution problem. As. in most major metropolitan areas, Mexico's City's air pollution comes from industry, homes, fuel-based transportation, and natural sources-all areas that the government is targeting for pollution control. The transport sector alone accounts for about half of Mexico City's total emissions. Since it is not feasible to tax emissions directly because the city's sources of transport pollution are many and varied, policy makers will have to use indirect instruments, which target proxies for emissions (indicators of how clean the car is and how much it is used). These indicators could be influenced by regulations (emissions standards) and market tools (fuel taxes). When pollution taxes cannot be implemented, a study recommends a mix of policies aimed at making vehicles and fuels cleaner and policies aimed at reducing demand for polluting vehicle trips. A gasoline tax, motivated by pollution abatement alone, would generate about $350 million in public revenue in Mexico City alone. Fields, Robert J. Understanding and Managing Sales and Use Tax. Chicago: Commerce Clearing House, 1991. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 32 ECO NORTHWEST Examines the practical applications of sales and use tax and presents basic concepts that form the foundation for a working tax consciousness. Part 1 explores the concepts of sales and use tax, focusing on the measurement of these taxes; exemptions; audits, hearings, and appeals; government administration of sales/use taxation; multi-state tax compacts and creative tax harvesting techniques; and nexus and jurisdiction. Part 2 focuses on the management of the sales and use tax function and discusses sales/use tax department management; registration; audit support documentation; handling audits and auditors; data processing opportunities for sales/use tax; the creation of effective tax manuals; training; tax research; asking and answering questions; and record retention. Greater London Council. Supplementary Licensing. Greater London Council, London, 1974. This document discusses various proposed supplementary licensing plans, by borough, by level. Hau, Timothy D. "Congestion Charging Mechanisms for Roads." World Bank Policy Research Working Papers Series WPS 1071 (1992): 1- 99. Of the many direct and indirect methods of charging for road use, the key alternatives for reducing road congestion are (1) cordon pricing using manual tollbooths, (2) supplementary vehicle licensing, (3) automatic vehicle identification, and (4) smart card technology. Henion, Loyd and Barbara Koos. "The Heavy Vehicle Electronic License Plate System Development Program: A Progress Report." Transportation Research Forum Proceedings 27 (No. 1 1986): 188-192. The Heavy Vehicle Electronic License Plate (HELP) System Development Program is a cooperative multi-state project designed to demonstrate the applicability and use of automated vehicle identification (AVI), weigh-in-motion (WIM), and automated vehicle classification (AVC). Participating states are Alaska, California, Idaho, Iowa, Minnesota, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Washington. The project asks truck operators to place Heavy Vehicle Electronic License Plates on their vehicles. The HELP will develop and implement methods for improving the management of the highway system through a linking of this electronic equipment by a telecommunication network accessible to all participants, both public and private. The project will illustrate how WIM and AVC, when integrated with a HELP system, can provide the states, federal government, and private industry with vital information for a variety of needs such as pavement and fleet management. This paper presents ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 33 ECO NORTHWEST the goals of the projects, the organization, and the potential benefits and impacts. Hoffer, George E. and Charles J. Gallagher. "The Effect of Registration Reciprocity on Road User Tax Rates." Southern Economic Journal 44 (No. 4 1978):913-921. An investigation of the adequacy of motor vehicle user charges has two distinct parts. First, there is the question of whether a given federal and state road tax structure is adequate to cover the allocated costs among the several vehicle types. Second, regardless of the answer to the above, there remains the question of whether a state's effective tax rate is reflective of its nominal rate. This paper estimates the user and property tax payments made by a sample of 50 ICC- certified motor freight carriers to five eastern and southern states. These firms' 1973 payments to each state on a per mile basis are compared with their theoretical tax liability under each state's tax code. In addition, cost estimates are calculated on a national average and for a particular state, Virginia. Levenson, Leo and Deborah Gordon. "DRIVE+: Promoting Cleaner and More Fuel Efficient Motor Vehicles through a Self-Financing System of State Sales Tax Incentives." Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 9 (No. 3 1990): 409-415. DRIVE+ (Demand-based Reductions In Vehicle Emissions PLUS Improvements in Fuel Economy) is a proposal to create self- financing tax incentives in California for consumers to buy cleaner and more fuel-efficient cars and trucks. Sales tax surcharges on vehicles with higher emissions of criteria pollutants and carbon dioxide (CO2) would pay for sales tax reductions on more efficient and lower-emitting cars and trucks. The magnitude of the incentives would be pegged to the costs of alternative strategies to control pollutant and CO2 emissions. The proposed incentives would help vehicle manufacturers meet sales goals contained in existing and proposed federal and state emissions and fuel economy standards. DRIVE+ would also encourage manufacturers to market and consumers to purchase vehicles that are cleaner and more efficient than the standards require. DRIVE+ holds the promise of being politically feasible as it imposes no net new taxes and requires no new appropriations from the state general fund. Manchester, Harlan R. "Sales-Use Tax Administration." Management Accounting 54 No. 6 (December 1972): 31-34. May, Anthony D. "Supplementary Licensing: An Evaluation." Traffic Engineering and Control 16 (No. 4, April 1975) ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 34 ECO NORTHWEST A new method of traffic restraint which would require drivers of certain vehicles to purchase special licenses to use their vehicles at specified times in designated areas is proposed. The proposal is considered as a means of providing restraint in inner London, reviewed are the effects of a number of alternative schemes on traffic patterns, on the environment and on the social and commercial framework of London, and determined are the practical requirements of these alternatives. This article summarizes the methods used and the results obtained. May, Anthony D. "Traffic Restraint: A Review of the Alternatives." Transportation Research 20A (No. 2, March 1986): 109-121. This paper draws upon a wide range of international experiences to assess the role that road pricing may play as a means of urban traffic restraint. It considers why restraint policies have not been more widely adopted in the face of mounting urban transport problems and identifies the major difficulties in implementation. A number of restraint policies are available and these are compared, using a range of criteria, as potential tools of transport policy. The conclusion which emerges is that, although the general case for restraint is more complex than many simplistic analyses have suggested, where there is a case for its introduction, road pricing, in a fairly simple form, offers the most effective approach. Finally, consideration is given to the future research needs into restraint measures. Menon, A.P. Gopinath, Sol-Hol Lam, and Henry S.L. Fan. "Singapore's Road Pricing System: Its Past, Present and Future." ITE Journal 63 (Number 12, December 1993): 44-48. Singapore is the first city in the world to implement a cordon road pricing system, the Area Licensing Scheme. The system was implemented in June 1975 and originally was aimed at discouraging automobile commuting. Pricing control was only applied during the morning peak hours, to private cars and taxis. In 1989, this goal was revised to incorporate traffic management to curtail congestion. This paper describes the implementation and results of this system. Menon, A.P.G. and P.A. Seddon. "Traffic in the Central Area - Part I: Volume Characteristics." IES Journal, The Institution of Engineers, Singapore 31 (No. 2, March/April 1991): 15-20. This document is a compilation of traffic statistics in the Singapore area, focusing on volume characteristics. Olszewski, P. and Tan Yan Weng. "Traffic in the Central Area -- Part III: Speed Characteristics." IES Journal. The Institution of Engineers, Singapore 31 (No. 2, March/April 1991): 1-12. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 35 ECO NORTHWEST This document is a compilation of traffic statistics in the Singapore area, focusing on speed characteristics. Shannon, Patrick and Robert P. Minch. "A Decision Support System for Motor Vehicle Taxation Evaluation." Interfaces 22 (March- April 1992): 52-64. A decision support system (DSS) for evaluating motor vehicle taxation legislation in Idaho allows users to assess the impact of changes in fixed vehicle registration fees and weight-distance taxes on state revenue collections and trucking industry costs. The 2 main sources of data concerning motor carriers were a registration file containing data on all carriers licensed to operate in Idaho and a file containing data on miles reported by carriers during each quarter of the year. An updated model of the motor carrier taxation DSS (MCTDSS), developed in 1987, showed that if weight-distance fees had been changed to a flat rate of 22.45 mills, an $821 increase in the registration fee of each truck would have been required to achieve revenue neutrality. In part because of the information provided by MCTDSS, the state of Idaho avoided what could have been a multi-million dollar adverse economic impact due to proposed legislation affecting the structure of motor vehicle taxation. Simross, Lynn. "Car Fees: Pay Now or Pay Lots More Later." Los Angeles Times, Wednesday, April 10, 1991, E3. This article explains a new California state law which will double the penalty for late auto registration. Fees for unpaid parking tickets also will be tacked on to the renewal costs. Smith, Peter. "Controlling Traffic Congestion by Regulating Car Ownership: Singapore's Recent Experience." Journal of Transport Economics & Policy 26 (1 1992): 89-95. This article discusses Singapore's experiences with changing the level of license and registration fees as well as varying quotas on individual car purchases and the results for car ownership and congestion. Toh, Rex. "Road Congestion Pricing: The Singapore Experience." Malayan Economic Review 22 (2 1977): 52-61. This article reviews the early experiences in Singapore with the area licensing scheme. Toh, Rex T. "Experimental Measures to Curb Road Congestion in Singapore: Pricing and Quotas." The Logistics and Transportation Review 28 (No. 3, September 1992): 289-317. This is a study of the road congestion problem in Singapore and the various experimental measures that have been implemented using the ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 36 ECO NORTHWEST pricing mechanism and quota system. These include the Area Licensing Scheme, the proposed Electronic Road Pricing System, Weekend Car Concept, general pricing restraints, and quotas on new car purchases. It concludes with a discussion on the impact on welfare, makes several policy recommendations, and outlines lessons for other countries contemplating similar measures. U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration. Summary of Travel Trends; 1990 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey. Center for Transportation Analysis, Office of Highway Information Management, 1990. FHWA-PL-92- 027. This report is part of a series of products from the 1990 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey (NPTS). The NPTS dataset contains information about the amount and nature of personal travel in the U.S., as related to the demographics of persons and households. This report highlights the survey results with emphasis on comparing the 1990 data to NPT'S data collected in 1969, 1977, and 1983. Topics such as household vehicle availability and use, annual miles per licensed driver, household travel rates, vehicle occupancy, and home- to-work trips are included. Watson, Peter L. and Edward P. Holland. "Congestion Pricing: The Example of Singapore." Finance and Development 13 (No. 1, March 1976): 20-23. This paper discusses the design, implementation, and results of the Singapore Area Licensing program. Wilson, Paul W. "Welfare Effects of Congestion Pricing in Singapore." Transport 15 (No. 3, March 1988):191-210. This paper examines the Singapore Area License Scheme. Changes in scheduling and choices of transportation mode by commuters are discussed. Although the toll is shown to reduce travel times for many commuters, many commuters are shown to incur scheduling costs as a result of the toll. Using estimated parameters of an indirect utility function, welfare functions are computed to compare welfare levels prior to, and just after, the toll was put into place. The evidence suggests that the toll may have reduced welfare. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 37 ECO NORTHWEST ANNUAL VMT CHARGES "Discommodity Market", The Economist. April 3, 1993. 31. This article discusses tradable pollution permits, which are negotiable bearer bonds good for one ton of sulfur dioxide. The demand for the permits at the Chicago Board of Trade has been lighter than expected thus far. "Trading Places", The Economist. July 7, 1990. 32-33. This article explains the phenomenon of tradable permits and their role at the core of the new clean air bill before Congress. Bresnock, Anne E. and Robert H. Huddy. Mobile Source Market Incentives for Southern California: Revenue and Equity Assessment of Emission/Use-Based Fees. Paper presented at Western Economic Association International Conference, June 29-july 3, Vancouver, B.C., 1994. This paper provides a general overview of design features and impact considerations associated with a variety of transportation pricing and subsidization measures that directly alter travel cost. Costs, revenues, political acceptability, and institutional issues pertaining to practical application of alternative market incentive strategies are also summarized. The paper focuses on an analysis of VMT by vehicles of different vintages in the Southern California region. The examination of VMT and vehicle vintage distribution patterns by income quintile indicates that the incidence of emission/use-based fees would fan most heavily on lower income groups. Those groups tend to perform larger percentages of their total VMT in older vehicles. (Similarly for higher income groups and newer model vehicles.) County analysis of the VMT and vehicle vintage distribution patterns provides insight regarding geographical equity concerns associated with implementation of an emission/use- based fee system. Further work to uncover sub-regional VMT and vehicle vintage distribution difference is begun in the study. Cameron, Michael. Efficiency and Fairness on the Road. Environmental Defense Fund, Oakland, CA., 1994. This report documents both the inefficiency of the present transportation system and the significant efficiency gains that could result from raising the current artificially low price of driving. It demonstrates that policies creating more accurate market incentives-measures such as vehicle mileage, smog, or congestion fees--could reduce the number of cars on the road, alleviating both pollution and congestion and lowering the overall price the region pays for the ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 38 ECO NORTHWEST mobility it gets. However, efficiency cannot be the only concern of policy makers. It is equally critical to consider issues of equity. This report presents a model for analyzing in considerable detail the effects of market-incentive policies on people of different income levels. It documents both the distribution of the present transportation system's benefits and costs among income groups and the distribution to be expected from several sample market-incentive measures. Its specific conclusion is that such policies can indeed be designed to benefit people at all income levels. But its more important contribution to the ongoing debate is a new method of analysis that policy makers and the public can use to make more informed choices among policy options and to tailor a transportation policy for Southern California that significantly improves both the efficiency and the equity of the present system. Greene, David L. "Vehicle Use and Fuel Economy: How Big is the "Rebound" Effect?" The Energy Journal 13 (No. 1 1992): 117- 143. By reducing the fuel costs of travel, motor vehicle efficiency improvements tend to increase the demand for travel, thereby offsetting some of the energy-savings benefit of the efficiency improvement and creating a "rebound" effect. The key factor is the elasticity of vehicle travel with respect to fuel cost per mile. Past studies offer a wide range of estimates depending on model formulation and time period, with more recent analyses indicating that travel is insensitive to fuel costs and efficiency. This paper analyzes U.S. light-duty vehicle miles traveled from 1966-89, examining a variety of statistical issues that bear on the size of the "rebound" effect, including error structure, functional form, and possible lagged effects. The results consistently confirm that the "rebound" effect has been quite small, about 5-15%, or less; and that short-run (one year) adjustments accounted for essentially all of the change in travel due to fuel price and fuel economy changes. The findings imply that the energy savings of technical fuel economy improvements to cars and light trucks will be only slightly reduced by increased vehicle travel. They also imply that gasoline taxes would need to be very large in order to stimulate significant reductions in travel. Harvey, Greig. Transportation Pricing and Travel Behavior. 1994. Paper Presented at the 69th Annual -Western Economic Association International Conference, Vancouver, B.C. This paper summarizes and critically interprets the current state of knowledge about the effects of transportation system prices on travel demand. The paper is written in the context of heightened interest in pricing instruments as tools for financing transportation investments and for addressing externalities in the transportation system ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 39 ECO NORTHWEST (particularly in the highway system). In making judgments about the desirability of pricing, and in developing specific pricing policies, it is important to have as much information as possible about impacts on the amount, location, and timing of travel in affected areas, both in total (for determining aggregate revenues and other system wide impacts) and among specific facilities, jurisdictions, and population subgroups (for evaluating distributional consequences). The paper assesses how well the current state of knowledge can address these information needs, and presents results from pricing studies based on state-of-the-practice tools. Harvey, Greig and Elizabeth Deakin. Manual of MPO Modeling Practice. National Association of Regional Councils, Washington, D.C., 1992. Recent changes in the context of transportation planning are increasing the importance of regional transportation analysis methods. In particular, the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 set forth detailed requirements for planning and analysis which apply to numerous metropolitan areas. This Manual, prepared under contract to the National Association of Regional Councils as part of NARC's Clean Air Project, was designed to help regional agencies (metropolitan planning organizations) respond to the issues raised in carrying out transportation modeling for air quality planning efforts. The Manual reviews the state of transportation modeling today, focusing primarily on travel demand forecasting as it is practiced by regional agencies, and suggests strategies for responding to specific analysis needs and for overcoming common problems. - The emphasis is on identifying issues which MPOs should consider in reviewing their models, and on recommending sound options for addressing such issues in accordance with local objectives and resource availability. Hanson, Donald A. "A Market Based Approach to Cleaner Air." Chicago Fed Letter May (No. 57 1992): 1-4. This article describes the market based approach to pollution control and assesses the new add rain legislation as a prototype. Hensher, David A, and Frank W. Milthorpe, and Nariida C. Smith. "The Demand for Vehicle Use in the Urban Household Sector: Theory and Empirical Evidence." Journal of Transport Economics and Policy 24 (No. 2, May 1990): 119-137. Forecasts of vehicle ownership are important in the development of road investment strategies and in the calculation of revenues form vehicle-linked taxes. However, the interest in energy consumption has highlighted the importance of vehicle utilization: the demand for automobiles and the demand for fuel should be treated as inputs into the household production function for mobility services, as embodied ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 40 ECO NORTHWEST in the level of utilization. This reorientation is an appealing emphasis for deciding on investments in road infrastructure; the intensity of use may be a more suitable basis for establishing road needs than the level of vehicle ownership. This paper outlines a static theory of choice behavior which views the rate of vehicle use as jointly determined with the choice of vehicle type. Jenkins, Glenn P and Ranjit Lamech. "Market-Based Incentive Instruments for Pollution Control." Bulletin for International Fiscal Documentation 46 (11 1992): 523-538. The use of market-based incentives (MBIS) as mechanisms for influencing pollution abatement has increased greatly in recent years. This trend reflects the realization that the integration of economic and environmental decision-making will induce the private sector to take steps to reduce their pollution emissions levels. Market-based incentive instruments may be broadly classified to include environmental taxes, investment tax incentives, tradable permits, user charges, and deposit refund systems. Until now, policy-makers worldwide have continued to place greater emphasis on the use of investment tax incentives since they seem to more effectively balance environmental considerations with concerns about industrial competitiveness. It is becoming increasingly apparent, however, that other MBIs may be more effective mechanisms for influencing pollution abatement in certain circumstances. This report reviews the theoretical foundations for idealized pollution control MBIS. It then focuses in particular on the way in which environmental taxes, deposit refund systems, and tradable pollution permits may be more suitable instruments for inducing pollution abatement behavior. A number of international examples of the implementation of such policies are reviewed. Kessler, Jon and William Schroeer. Meeting Mobility and Air Quality Goals: Strategies that Work. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Policy Analysis, 1993. Draft report. Recent federal legislation sets tough air quality goals for the nation but offers scant guidance to urban areas responsible for meeting those goals. Traditionally, transportation-related air quality policy emphasized cleaner vehicle and fuels technologies and alternatives to single- occupant vehicle travel such as car pooling and mass transit. Analysis suggests, however, that meeting air quality goals will require the addition of policies to manage the growing demand for transportation. The introduction of market forces into transportation supply and demand decisions would support traditional transportation and air quality strategies, and produce additional mobility, air quality, and economic benefits. Recent transportation legislation offers states ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 41 ECO NORTHWEST and localities the flexibility to meet mobility and air quality goals in an innovative, non-traditional manner. Drawing on theoretical analysis and recent empirical evidence this paper offers a package of measures for the consideration of state, local, and federal policy-makers. Loudon, William R., Deborah A. Dagang, and Robert G. Dulla. The Effectiveness of Transportation Control Measures in Reducing Congestion and Improving Air Quality. Air & Waste Management Association, 1993. Presentation at the 86th Annual Meeting & Exhibition, Denver, Colorado, June 13-18. Report No. 93-RP- 149.05. Legislation and regulations to improve air quality have increasingly focused on mobile sources as a target area for emissions reduction, and transportation control measures (TCMS) are a primary strategy for achieving this goal. This paper describes some of the legislative requirements, the tools available to evaluate candidate TCMS, and the results of research on the effectiveness of selected TCMs on travel reduction and emissions reduction. Trip reduction is found to have the most sizable impact on air quality and decreasing employer-paid parking to have a significant impact on trip reduction. Loudon, William and Malcolm Quint. "Predicting Pollution." Civil Engineering April. (1993) The article breaks down the components of vehicle emissions into four parts: trip-start emissions, running emissions, evaporative trip-end emissions, and diurnal emissions. The authors propose a methodology and discuss software applications which can predict air quality emissions as the result of traffic patterns. Madden, Gary G. "Aggregate Studies of Automobile Demand: A Review." International Journal of Transport Economics 15 (No. 2, June 1988): 129-58 ' This is a review of various econometric models attempting to measure and predict automobile demand. Pickrell, Don. Automobile and Gasoline Demand, Revisited. Harvard University, Volpe National Transportation Systems Center, U.S. Department of Transportation, 1992. This paper estimates long-run income elasticities, short-run and long-run fuel price elasticities with respect to auto ownership, annual VMT, and total fuel consumption. Rose-Ackerman, Susan. "Market Models for Pollution Control: Their Strengths and Weaknesses." Public Policy 25 (No. 3, Summer 1977): 383-406. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 42 ECO NORTHWEST Two market schemes for controlling water pollution, effluent charges, and pollution rights are contrasted. Rights are, in general, found to be superior to charges, but market mechanisms must also be supplemented by non-market regulatory devices. Rights are preferred to charges because they (1) assure the attainment of water quality thresholds; (2) minimize inequities; (3) provide a means of subsidizing municipalities without sacrificing efficiency; (4) permit growth without burdening existing dischargers; and (5) provide a way to handle emergencies. In addition, they can be incorporated into the existing legislation without a drastic revision of the Water Pollution Control Act of 1972. Sholtz-Vogt, Anne and Kenneth Chilton. "Can the Free Market Clean Up Our Air?" Business and Society Review 75 (Fall 1990): 41- 42. This paper discusses two instruments designed to reduce releases of pollution: emissions fees and transferable emissions permits, or allowances. Stanley, Robert G., Maureen Sevigny, and Arlee T. Reno. Positive Feedback Approach to Mobile Source Emissions Reduction in the South Coast Region. 1994. Based on Final Report for the South Coast Air Quality Management District, under Contract AB 2766/COO13 Presented at the 69th Annual Western Economic Association International Conference, Vancouver, B.C. The objective of the "Positive Feedback" project has been to estimate the emissions reduction that might result in the South Coast region from a combined fee on vehicle miles of travel (VMT) and vehicle emission rates, and to quantify the additional emissions reduction that might be achieved from the reinvestment of the fee revenues in related programs and initiatives. The central hypothesis of the study is that a pricing mechanism that increases the cost of personal vehicle use in direct relationship to miles traveled and the emissions characteristics of individual vehicles will affect travel behavior and vehicle holdings in a way that will reduce otherwise expected levels of mobile source emissions. Transportation Research Board. "The Vehicle-Miles of Travel -- Urban Highway Supply Relationship." National Cooperative Highway Research Program Research Results Digest 127 (1980): 1-7. This paper examines the relationship between VMT and urban highway capacity. It discusses commuting behavior, travel demand elasticities, and the need for further research. U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration. Summary of Travel Trends; 1990 Nationwide Personal Transportation ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 43 ECO NORTHWEST Survey. Center for Transportation Analysis, Office of Highway Information Management, 1990. FHWA-PL-92-027. This report is part of a series of products from the 1990 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey (NPTS). The NPTS dataset contains information about the amount and nature of personal travel in the U.S., as related to the demographics of persons and households. This report highlights the survey results with emphasis on comparing the 1990 data to NPT'S data collected in 1969, 1977, and 1983. Topics such as household vehicle availability and use, annual miles per licensed driver, household travel rates, vehicle occupancy, and home- to-work trips are included Walbert, Mark S. and Thomas J. Bierma. "The Permits Game: Conveying the Logic of Marketable Pollution Permits." Journal of Economic Education 19 (4 1988):383-389. This article presents an interactive classroom technique designed to increase the reader's basic understanding of at least two fundamental ideas in environmental economics. The first is that the optimal level of pollution is rarely zero. The second is idea is that marketable pollution permits offer the lowest-cost, most easily implemented means of attaining a given level of pollution control. FUEL TAXES "Cost and Benefit Analysis of a Motor Fuels Tax." Energy Information Administration, Office of Energy Markets and End Use. U.S. Dept: of Energy (March 1987). Presents statistical and policy analyses of a fuels tax, likely effects on transportation patterns, vehicle use, and mobility. "Gasoline Tax Statistics." National Petroleum News 85 (Mid-June 1993): 174-176. US state and federal motor fuel tax statistics, including net gasoline revenues are presented. Barrett, Richard. Urban Transport in West Africa. World Bank Technical Paper series, No. 81, Urban Transport Series, Washington DC: World Bank,1988. This paper discusses the strengths and weaknesses of urban transport systems in West Africa, which are grossly inadequate to meet the needs of the existing urban population because much of the infrastructure dates back to colonial times and has not been adequately maintained or improved. The author analyzes the urban transport constraints in ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 44 ECO NORTHWEST eight cities in West Africa examining the background of transport systems and trends; strengths and weaknesses of transportation; and the World Bank's experiences, role, and strategy. The author identifies the following policy issues that must be addressed if the urban transport system is to be improved: (1) cost recovery and mobilization of resources through motor vehicle and fuel taxes, user charges, and parking tariffs and fines; (2) improving transport services by improving privately owned bus companies and granting incentives to private operators; (3) improving the efficiency of road transport, including road maintenance and traffic management; and (4) institutional development such as establishing road maintenance and traffic management units. Beggs, S. and S. Cardell. "Assessing the Potential Demand for Electric Cars." Journal of Econometrics 16 (1981): 1-19. The authors model the possible future market for electric cars. Bowman, John H and John L Mikesell. "Recent Changes in State Gasoline Taxation: An Analysis of Structure and Rates." National Tax Journal 36, No. 2 (June 1983 ): 163-182. Highway cost-and gasoline price increases and gasoline consumption decreases have prompted significant changes in state gasoline taxes, including both uncommonly large and numerous rate increases and provisions for automatic rate adjustment under variable-rate (indexed) taxes. Seven variable rate states index by gasoline price changes--the result is a crude approximation to ad valorem taxation--but three use other indexing factors, including cost of services, which break new ground in tax practice. The different indexing approaches also produce different rate adjustment experiences and expectations. Analysis of rate change influences shows that so far, at least, automatic rate adjustment has not produced rate increases larger than those from statutory change. Brinner, Roger, Michael Shelby, Joyce Yanchar, and Alex Cristofaro. "Optimizing Tax Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse