Improving Bus Accessibility Systems for Persons with Sensory and Cognitive Impairments
August 1993
Click HERE for graphic. Improving Bus Accessibility Systems for Persons with Sensory and Cognitive Impairments Final Report August 1993 Prepared by Katharine M. Hunter-Zaworski and Martha Hron Transportation Research Institute Oregon State University Corvallis, Oregon 97331 Prepared for University Research and Training Program Office of Technical Assistance Federal Transit Administration Washington, D.C, 20590 Distributed in Cooperation with Technology Sharing Program U.S. Department of Transportation Washington, D.C. 20590 DOT-T-94-04 Click HERE for graphic. TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Goals and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Report Organization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 CHAPTER 2 DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Rider Tasks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Evaluation of Rider's Transit Needs. . . . . . . . . . . .5 Understanding the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 Accessing the Correct Vehicle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 Entering the Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 Travelling on the Vehicle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Departing the Vehicle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Deafness and Hearing Impairments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Blindness and Visual Impairments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 Cognitive Impairments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 Emotional Impairments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 Learning Disabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Brain Injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Mental Retardation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Deafness and Hearing Impairments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Understanding the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Accessing the Correct Vehicle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Entering the Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Travelling on the Vehicle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Departing the Vehicle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Existing the Station/Terminal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Staff Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Transit Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Blindness and Visual Impairment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Understanding the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Accessing the Correct Vehicle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Entering the Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Travelling on the Vehicle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Departing the Vehicle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Exiting the Station or Terminal. . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Training the Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 i Training for Transit Agency Personnel. . . . . . . . . . 23 Cognitive Impairments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Common Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Signage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Electronic Fare Collection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 27 User Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Training for the Trainers and Transit Personnel. . . . . 32 Transit Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 CHAPTER 4 SIGNAGE INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 CHAPTER 5 SURVEY AND INTERVIEWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Survey Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Survey Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Training Format. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Interview Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Interview Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Evaluation of Rider Transit Needs and Understanding the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Accessing the Correct Vehicle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Entering the Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Travelling on the Vehicle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Departing the Vehicle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Exiting the Station/Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 User Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Transit Personnel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Additional Comments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Deafness and Hearing Impairments . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Blindness and Visually Impaired. . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Cognitive Impairments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 CHAPTER 7 RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Effective Visual Signage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Training for the User. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Training for Transit Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Reduce Bus Operator Tasks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Use Technology to Reduce Operator Workload . . . . . . . . . . 59 Cooperation Between Training Facility and Transit Agency . . . 59 Training for Trainers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Integration of Assistive Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 ii BIBLIOGRAHPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 APPENDICES A Battelle Matrix Summary B Survey C Survey Statistics D Interview List iii iv ABSTRACT With the passage of the American with Disabilities Act (ADA) it has become a civil rights violation to deny access to persons with disabilities to public transportation. The ADA requires transit agencies to provide accessible buses or equivalent services to persons with mobility, sensory or cognitive impairments. This study examines issues concerning persons with sensory and cognitive impairments, and their access to fixed route transit services. The goals of this report are to specify operating guidelines, suggest technological changes, and offer operating policy and training program modifications that solve problems of transit access for persons with sensory and cognitive impairments. To determine where the access problems exist in fixed route transit systems, an examination was undertaken of existing technologies and programs that are in use by transit agencies in North America. The available literature indicated that there were technologies and policies available for solving problems of persons with visual and hearing impairments. However, little appeared to be available for persons with cognitive impairments. To fill in this knowledge gap, surveys and interviews were conducted with persons with cognitive and other impairments, persons who train persons with sensory and cognitive impairments, and persons who provide transportation services. This study concludes that, for persons with cognitive impairments, technological solutions are not the answer to increase bus accessibility. Personal interaction is needed to solve each individual circumstance with the transit user. Transit personnel need training so personnel become aware and more sensitive to the needs of all transit users. Transit users need training so use of the transit system is accomplished With grace, speed, efficiency and dignity. Trainers of persons with disabilities need training themselves so transit travelers will be informed of all the available services the transit agencies are offering. Also, visual signage must be standardized to be effective, including consideration of location, lighting, contrast, and content. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to express their gratitude to Micki Kaplan of Lane Transit District in Eugene, Oregon, and Patricia Nielsen with Tri-Met in Portland, Oregon, for their invaluable support and guidance. They helped to coordinate the meetings of the advisory committees based in Eugene and Portland. The authors also thank all the volunteers and professionals who contributed their time and knowledge in assisting with the project. The authors thank Marina Drancsak, of the University Research and Training Program, and George Izumi at the USDOT Federal Transit Administration for their support and guidance of the project. The authors thank Nancy Coburn and Dave Norstrom at Battelle for sharing the draft of their reports with the project team, which permitted the continuation of the work that they had started. The authors express their appreciation for the review and the general input by Drs. Robert Won, Jon Kimeling, and Ken Funk of Oregon State University. vii IMPROVING BUS ACCESSIBILITY SYSTEMS FOR PERSONS WITH SENSORY AND COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENTS CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION July 26,1990, marked the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). As a result, it has become a civil rights violation to deny transportation to persons with disabilities. Most transit agencies in the country are feeling a significant impact. The ADA requires agencies to provide accessible buses or equivalent services to persons with mobility, sensory or cognitive impairments. Some progress has been made regarding mobility access in transit applications With the advent of wheel chair lifts and securement systems. Access for persons with cognitive disabilities has received little attention in past research. This study examines access issues relating to persons with sensory and cognitive impairments in fixed route applications. BACKGROUND At the time of the enactment of the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) there were 43 million people in the United States who had one or more disabilities. As the population grows older, the number of persons with disabilities in America increases. The preamble of the ADA states that because there was no legal recourse, there was discrimination in areas such as employment, housing, public accommodations, education, and communications as well as in recreation, institutionalization, health services, voting, access to public services, and transportation. This discrimination denies people with disabilities the opportunity to compete on an equal basis for opportunities for which America is famous. The ADA legislation is designed to eliminate discrimination against persons with disabilities. These examples of discrimination which are cited in the Act are specific to employment; public services; telecommunications; services operated by private entities; and transportation. The transportation regulations in this Act cover the vehicles, the system and facilities. The Act is clear in its intent to eliminate discrimination. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES There are four main goals of this report: 1. To determine existing technologies, operating policies, and training programs that are currently being used by transit agencies in North America to accommodate individuals with sensory and cognitive disabilities. 1 2. To examine the technological and operational needs where there are problems of transit access for individuals with disabilities which are not currently being addressed. 3. To specify design guidelines and conceptual designs that solve problems of transit access for individuals with disabilities. 4. To specify operating policy and training program modifications to increase transit access for individuals with disabilities. APPROACH The primary goal of the project is to improve transit accessibility for individuals with sensory and cognitive impairments. Figure 1 shows the systems approach taken to achieve these goals. DEFINITIONS STATE OF THE ART PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION GENERATE SOLUTIONS ANALYZE SOLUTIONS CONCLUSION Figure 1. Research Approach In the definition process, two major components are identified: 1) the actual tasks that are required to make a successful transit trip; and 2) the identification of impairments and the resulting limitations, and how these are related to fixed route transit situations. The state of the art is analyzed through a review of technologies and practices. The literature review examines bus accessibility for persons with sensory and cognitive impairments. This review points out the severe lack of information to assist persons with cognitive impairments and the resulting need to make buses more accessible. 2 Problem identification was accomplished with the assistance of transit agency personnel, persons with disabilities, and professionals who train others with disabilities. This was accomplished through surveys and interviews. This report includes a copy of the survey and tabulated results of both the survey and interviews in Appendix B. The use of symbolic encoding of information to assist persons with cognitive disabilities in the use of public transportation was also explored and is discussed briefly. Conclusions and recommendations to improve accessibility on fixed route transit systems are the result of the completion and analysis of this information. REPORT ORGANIZATION There are seven sections in this report After the introduction, the second section covers definitions and limitations. This section describes the necessary tasks required to ride a bus on a fixed route, defines the various disabilities and the resulting limitations for persons with sensory and cognitive impairments. The third section consists of the literature review. This section considers the technologies and exemplary practices to improve bus accessibility for persons with sensory and cognitive impairments. The literature is a study on access signage and symbolic encoding. The symbolic encoding of information is a component of assistive technology which can promote the successful use of transportation systems by persons with cognitive impairments. The fifth section discusses the results of the survey and interviews with professionals who provide training and transportation to persons with cognitive impairments. Summary and conclusions are presented in the sixth section and the last section includes the recommendations developed as a result of this research. 3 4 CHAPTER 2 DEFINITIONS The ADA defines disability as "(a) a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities of such individual; (b) a record of such an impairment; or (c) being regarded as having such an impairment." To increase bus accessibility, the transit user needs to understand what is required by the transit agency to use the system and also the rider needs to be assessed to determine what his/her capabilities and limitations are with regards to using public transportation. Defined in this section are the rider tasks necessary to use a fixed route system and the limitations of sensory and cognitive disabilities related to using transit. Categories of types of impairments provide a framework to identify subgroups that have similar transit needs and problems. For the purposes of this research effort, sensory and cognitive impairments have been divided into three categories: 1) deafness and hearing impairments 2) blindness and visual impairments 3) cognitive impairments. RIDER TASKS This section discusses the tasks necessary to ride a fixed route transit system. This is accomplished with the assistance of Battelle's matrix in Guidelines For Improvements To Transit Accessibility For Persons with Disabilities [Coburn, et al., 1992] and Flight 201 Has Been Moved to Gate 102: Challenges Experienced by Travellers with Cognitive or Emotional Disabilities [McInemery, et al., 1990]. The skills involve evaluation of riders needs, understanding the system, accessing the correct vehicle, entering the vehicle, travelling on the vehicle, departing the vehicle, and leaving the stop/station. The Battelle matrix is located in Appendix A of the report. Evaluation of Rider's Transit Needs Before contacting the transit agency, the rider needs to evaluate her/his transit needs. Transit needs include the identification of the origin and destination of the transit trip, and of any other special services that might be required. Special services are kneeling buses, wheelchair lifts, low floor buses, ramps, special routes, etc. 5 Understanding the System The next step is acquiring the transit information for the pan of the system to be used. Transit agencies readily supply this information via a telephone information service or through printed materials such as maps and route schedules. For a successful transit trip, it is critical that the correct media is used in communicating this information from the transit agency to the potential passenger. Tasks in understanding the system: 1. Determine what part of the system is to be used. a. Which route(s) will be used. b. Where the initial and final stop on the route are located. 2. Determine if the use of transfers is necessary. a. How to receive a transfer. b. How to make the transfer. 3. Determine fare payment procedures/details. a. The cost of the total trip. b. Fare media, such as coins, tokens, or passes. 4. Determine if special provisions are provided, such as special routes, lifts, ramps, or low floor buses. To make a complete trip all of this information is necessary. The type of media in which the information is given is critical. If there is any misunderstanding or missing information, the trip may be in jeopardy. Accessing the Correct Vehicle The user must locate the correct stop to initiate the trip. If the stop has several routes serving it the rider must be able to differentiate between buses. At a transfer point where several buses are parked in a row, the rider needs to be able to distinguish between the buses in order to enter the correct vehicle. To do this the user must: 1. not let others deter her/him from the trip plan, 2. use visual displays, 3. monitor auditory messages, and 4. wait. Entering the Vehicle When entering a vehicle, the user must be able to ascend the stairs or use the lift. To do this, vertical and horizontal gaps need to be negotiated. The horizontal gap varies with the distance between the curb and 6 stopped bus. The type of bus and curb (if any) height Influences the vertical gap. Some buses have a kneel option that may help facilitate this. Additional tasks include locating fare boxes, paying the correct fare, and requesting a transfer if needed. The user must be able to identify and maneuver to an empty seat Sometimes these actions take place as the vehicle Is moving. Travelling on the Vehicle The user must accommodate the starts, stops and the motion of the vehicle. The rider must act appropriately and not let other passengers distract her/him from their transit tasks. The necessary skills when travelling on the bus are comprehension of announcements and determination of the appropriate response. These announcements could be ordinary, such as intersection announcements or instructions on what to do in case of an emergency. Departing the Vehicle Departing the vehicle at the correct stop may be difficult The ADA requires that bus operators call out major intersections to help passengers identify the correct stop. The passenger must then notify the driver by pulling a chord or pressing a strip, move to a doorway and descend the stairs or use a lift to ex!L When exiting the vehicle, the rider needs to establish which direction to move towards for her/his ne)d destination. This concludes the detailed description of the tasks necessary to ride a fixed route transit system. The next step in improving bus accessibility is the understanding of the limitations of the impairments of persons with sensory and cognitive disabilities as they perform these tasks. DEAFNESS AND HEARING IMPAIRMENTS Deafness is a profound or total loss of auditory sensitivity perception. Hearing impairment, with or without a hearing aid, is the inability to successfully process linguistic information through audition. The amount of hearing loss is measured in loudness (measured in decibels) and pitch (measured in hertz). Nominal ranges are 0 to 130 decibels and 20 to 15,000 hertz [Hardman, et al., 19901. Hearing impairment covers varying degrees of hearing loss. Factors influencing hearing sensitivity are the distance between the speaker and listener, background noise, language proficiency, past experience, environmental awareness and corresponding lack of compensatory judgment. Many persons with a mid loss may function well in quiet situations but may have difficulties when there is a noisy background or with a large group of people [Hardman, et al., 1990]. A hearing impairment may be a "hidden" disability. Bus operators may not be aware of the hearing impairment and, therefore, do not notice that assistance may be required. One area of concern within the 7 transit system is the inability to receive information from driver announcements or over a PA system. This is nonexistent in the usual way for persons with hearing impairments. These announcements may be routine (i.e., intersection announcements), abnormal (i.e., a small route detour), or emergency [Coburn, et al., 1992]. Deafness or hearing impairments impede one's ability to use normal communication methods, such as person to person conversations, or with devices such as a standard telephone. This affects the hearing impaired transit user when obtaining transfers, schedule information and normal interaction with other passengers. There are wide ranges in hearing loss. In everyday situations difficulties arise in hearing driver announcements and obtaining schedule information. The most severe case is in emergency situations. Persons with hearing impairments, if not able to see the emergency, would only see others react to the situation. They would not know if they must react or what the appropriate action to take would be. BLINDNESS AND VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS Blindness, or visual impairment, is the total loss of visual perception, sufficiently diminished visual acuity, and/or limited fields of vision. Recognizing an object at a standard distance refers to visual acuity. Field of vision is the widest angle of sight. Visual acuity is defined in a set of two numbers. The standard or normal visual acuity is 20/20. However, if a person with normal vision is able to read something at a distance of 200 feet and a second person is unable to read ft until R is only 20 feet away the second person has a visual acuity of 20/200 [Hardman, et al., 1990]. To define "sufficiently diminished" visual acuity and limited fields of vision, several sets of criteria exist These usually depend on the intended use. For example, to quality for the federal income tax "blind" exemption a person must have "... a visual acuity greater than 20/200 but not greater than 20/70 in the better eye after correction" [Hardman, et al., 1990]. The definition of blindness adopted by the American Medical Association is: "A person shall be considered blind whose central visual acuity does not exceed 20/200 in the better eye with correcting lenses or whose Visual acuity, if better then 20/200, has a limit in the central field of vision to such a degree that its widest diameter subtends an angle of no greater than twenty degrees" [Hardman, et al., 1990]. Persons with visual impairments experience many different types of problems. Some of these include not being able to distinguish the difference between light and dark, having only peripheral sight, and/or seeing 8 through a "fog." Other examples are seeing only parts of images and/or tunnel vision [Hickling-Partners, March 1983; Coburn, et al., 1992]. Challenging experiences exist in the transit system for persons with partial or total vision loss. Particular areas of concern in a transit system are: 1) receiving system information; 2) locating and using devices associated with a transit trip; and 3) physical movements throughout the system [Coburn, et al., 1992]. Printed matter, such as maps and schedules, are the most common sources of information used to learn the system. People who cannot see to read have a difficult time finding such media useful. Locating and using devices, such as fare boxes or token dispensers, is practically impossible without some type of non- visual asisstive aid. To move through a transit system a person must be able to locate, enter, move through, and exit the transit vehicle. This also involves accommodating the movements of others while moving to different areas. Blind or visually impaired persons have difficulty orienting themselves to the environment or to other people because they cannot "see" them. They may fear injuring themselves, resulting in attempts to restrict their movements [Coburn, et al., 1992; Hardman, et al., 1990]. In summary, visual impairment includes blindness, sufficiently diminished visual acuity and/or limited fields of vision. Several criteria exist to describe visual impairments, and these usually depend on the intended use. The difficulties persons with visual impairments face are finding usable transit system information and locating the necessary transit devices. The most serious problem faced by visually impaired persons is difficulty orienting themselves to their surroundings. COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENTS "Cognitive Disorder: any disorder requiring special attention to, or alternate methods of, communicating concepts and instructions ..."[McInerney, et al., 1990]. Types of cognitive impairments are emotional disabilities, mental retardation, learning disabilities, brain injury, and any other intellectual capacity limitations. The varying abilities of persons with cognitive impairments result in a corresponding range of difficulty in a public transportation situation. Emotional Impairments There are many types of emotional disabilities, defining all of them are beyond the scope of this report. However, most disorders are accompanied by one or several symptoms, and it is these symptoms that cause problems in transit. The symptoms vary from person to person and in severity. Used in Table 1 are some of the symptoms that may be experienced by persons with emotional impairments. 9 Table 1. Symptoms of Mental Illness [McInerney, et al., June 1990] psychomotor agitation antisocial behavior paranoid ideation suicidal ideation instability anger impaired judgment tremors anxiety psychomotor retardation impaired abstract thinking indecisiveness and reticence impaired concentration impaired memory compulsions impaired speech delusions problems of elimination hallucinations mood shifts nausea, vomiting In the transit system, persons with emotional impairments may find some situations difficult to cope with. Some of these situations may be a change in the routine or route, crowds, closed-in spaces, heights, and the possibility of being unable to cope in a "normal" fashion. A crisis or non-routine situation causes stress levels to rise for all passengers, but for persons with emotional disabilities these levels may rise severely. Elevated stress levels can be expressed as confusion, extreme shyness, withdrawal, and hesitancy. Emotionally impaired persons may react with mood changes; may need to ask several times for clarification and direction; may reach out to staff or other passengers for support; and may display any of the symptoms listed in Table 1 [Hickling-Partners, March 1983]. Learning Disabilities There is a great variety in definitions for learning disabilities. The National Joint Committee for Learning Disabilities proposed the following definition: "Learning disabilities is a generic term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual and presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction ..." [Hardman, et W., 1990]. Learning disabilities make ft difficult for an otherwise intelligent person to learn a particular concept These concepts include reading and writing; reasoning or understanding directions; computing time and distance; short attention span and a lack of concentration; and problems in understanding signage [Hickling-Partners, March 1983]. Characteristics that may be seen in transit situations are impulsiveness, clumsy or awkward movements, confusion, losing possessions, and inability to follow directions. Some characteristic may be unnoticed. 10 Therefore, it is up to the person with learning disabilities to make her/his needs known [Hickling-Partners, March 1983]. Brain Injury Brain injury is an organic impairment resulting in perceptual problems, thinking disorders, and emotional instability. Depending on the nature and e)dent of the injury, there may be evidence of language, memory, motor, and impulse-control difficulties [Hardman, et al., 1990]. There are several significant characteristics generally associated with brain injuries: 1. Slow processing, more time is needed to accomplish tasks. 2. Memory and organizational abilities will probably be affected. Memory for newly learned material will be affected to a greater extent than previously learned information. 3. The problems caused by the brain injury may be hidden to casual observer& Rapid, erratic changes in behavior may be the effect of a brain injury. For example, a person may have appropriate behavior one day and inappropriate behavior the next day [Special Education Services Unit, March 1990]. Mental Retardation Mental retardation is a below average intellectual functioning along with limitations in a persons ability to meet standards of maturation, learning, personal independence and social responsibility [Hardman, et al., 1990]. Several classification systems have been developed to discuss mental retardation. Some of these are based on causation, educable expectations, or severity of conditions. The most relevant to this discussion is severity of the conditions. Severity of conditions is based on the person's intellectual capabilities and adaptive behavior. This is described by using terms such as mild, moderate, severe and profound. Characteristics of persons with mental retardation are listed in Table 2. As can been seen from the range of characteristics and severity, each circumstance in the transit situation must be treated individually. The varying degree of ability directly relates to the difficulty each individual will have in new situations. 11 Click HERE for graphic. Other disorders that affect cognitive processing are cerebral palsy, epilepsy, and autism, to mention a few. The total range of cognitive disorders is too broad to be covered in the context of this report. However, the above sampling is representative. Cognitive impairments cover a wide range of disabilities with and without similar outward characteristics. In other words, two persons both with similar impairments may react in a similar or different manner to the same situation, as would two persons with different impairments. From the listing of characteristics and symptoms the following is clear. 1. There is a wide variety and degree of intensity of symptoms or characteristics. The variety and degree of symptoms or characteristics may be in any combination or may exist individually. 2. Because of the wide variety of symptoms or characteristics of the different impairments, R is difficult to determine the type of impairment by the symptoms or characteristics displayed alone. 3. Cognitive impairments may affect all parts of the transit trip. 4. Each situation is unique and must be treated in a unique manner. 12 CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE REVIEW Many persons With disabilities routinely ride the transit system successfully. The amount of difficulty that they experience depends on the nature and extent of the disability, the situation they are involved in, and the transit system being used. Combined Research Results states that it is important for transit agencies to acknowledge the variety of people with different disabilities, to identify subgroups of persons with disabilities and identify their specific transit needs [Project ACTION, 1990]. A person with a visual impairment can hear a special announcement that a bus operator makes while a hearing impaired person can not. Four categories of disabilities are examined in the literature review. The first three reflect the different impairments and the necessary solutions for a successful transit trip. These categories are deafness and hearing impairments; blindness and visual impairments; and cognitive impairments. The fourth category addresses issues that are common among all disabilities, primarily focusing on training. The literature review is organized according to the previously discussed rider tasks necessary to use the transit system. DEAFNESS AND HEARING IMPAIRMENTS The two areas identified as major concerns for persons with hearing impairments are: 1) receiving information necessary to make a transit trip, and 2) hearing announcements by the driver or over a PA system. Understanding the System Many alternatives exist that can assist the person with hearing impairments in receiving transit information. Some of these are printed media, TDD, automatic speech recognition systems, and manual communications. Hearing aid compatible telephones, fax machines, and amplified telephones are other methods of receiving transit agency information [Crain-Revis, 1982; FitzPatrick, et al., 1989; Uslan, et al., 1990; Coburn, et al., 1992]. Telecommunications Device for the Deaf (TDD) is a device that allows messages to be sent back and forth over a telephone line by typing responses, providing a visual rather than auditory message. Both parties must have a special keyboard that connects to a telephone. This technique is used by many transit agencies. Some personal computer modems are capable of TDD transmission. 13 Automatic Speech Recognition Systems (ASR) provide data entry into computers by voice recognition. The hearing person speaks into a microphone connected to a computer. The computer acts as an interpreter and converts the speech to & ASR is a rapidly evolving technology which is still in its infancy in transportation applications. Currently the computer only interprets 30 to 40 words per minute, which is not close to real time speech recognition. The system works on a matching principle in which memory patterns represent word sounds. When a sound is made that closely approximates a pattern, the corresponding word is chosen. The person who speaks into the device must be registered with the computer. Only after repeated use can the registered voice pattern be recognized. Technology is available to connect ASR devices with TDD'S. This holds the potential for improved distribution of transit information. The predominant language used by persons with hearing impairments Is American Sign Language. ft would be useful if transit personnel were provided with cards showing the basic signs or were able to learn a few signs. Hearing aid compatible telephones enable transit users to converse on the telephone. The telephone and the user's hearing aid must be properly equipped to be compatible. The compatible telephone converts sound into magnetic energy. An induction col sensitive to the telephone's magnetic energy Is placed within the compatible hearing aid, and converts the energy back to sound. A t-switch allows magnification of sounds coming orgy from the induction coil. Amplified telephones have adjustable volume and are able to amplify speech by 20 decibels and thereby reduce the influence of background noise. These are compatible with a hearing aid t- switch. Facsimile machines have become part of everyday life. An advantage for the hearing impaired is the elimination of typing. Frequently older people find typing difficult, making use of a TDD impossible. Another advantage is the personal format a fax can use. A counter-top device for facilitating dialogue between the target group and an airline station representative may have some customer service applications for mass transit. This system consists of two touch screens, one for the passenger and one for the agent. A computer controls the program low and transmits messages from one screen to the other. This device is also multilingual [Rutenberg, 1990]. Accessing the Correct Vehicle For assistance in accessing the correct vehicle, visual signs with clearly written instructions and visual displays of announcements are useful. The use of symbols that are not standard [Coburn, et a]., 1992] may cause confusion. Visual displays may be electronic. Exterior signs have been flip dot because other 14 technologies are less visible in the sunlight. Other technologies include, reflective disc, liquid crystal display (LCD), light emitting diode (LED). Entering the Vehicle Since some hearing impaired persons rely on dogs for assistance, there must be sufficient room for hearing ear dogs within the vehicle. Standard visual signals will assist the deaf or hearing impaired passenger to enter the vehicle [Coburn, et W., 1992]. Travelling on the Vehicle Upgrades to visual displays consistently help persons with hearing impairments to comprehend special announcements. Directional signage is assistive in the location of technical aids, such as assistive listening devices, a sign language communicator, and visual displays of announcements [FitzPatrick, et al., 1989; Coburn, et al., 1992]. Listening Systems Assistive listening devices provide specific amplified messages directly to the users ear. This diminishes the effect of the background noise which is a major problem for person's with hearing impairments. These can be used either within buses or in transit facilities. Three types of assistive listening devices are FM, infrared, and induction loop. Information booths or kiosks should also be equipped with an assistive listening system [Fitzpatrick, et al., 1989]. FM systems transmit a message spoken into a microphone to a signal on an assigned channel. Transmitters can be portable, run on batteries, and used by transit operators. Fixed transmitters usually use an available power supply. The person wishing to hear this message has a receiver. Receivers have adjustable volume, and receive one or more channels. A disadvantage of the FM system is that equipment from different manufacturers is generally not compatible with each other. Due to FCC regulations each company has the option to choose a frequency, within the designated broadcast band, and band width to use. If an individual wishes to purchase their own receiver, they would have to find out which system is being used and which frequency is on its lines. An infrared device system is similar to the FM system in that a transmitter sends out a signal which is picked up by a receiver. However, instead of an FM radio frequency, the signal is transmitted by infrared light. There are disadvantages to the infrared system. The infrared signal is limited to the line of "sight" transmitted, receivers must be able to "see" the signal to interpret its message. Infrared light systems do 15 not perform well in natural light, and are typically more expensive than the other two assistive listening device systems. Manufacturers have agreed to use the same frequency to transmit the infrared signals. This allows people to purchase their own receivers. However, multiple transmission signals have not been standardized. If more than one signal is used, special receivers tuned to the correct frequency are necessary. Personal receivers will not be effective. Induction loop systems are the least expensive assistive listening systems. Wire is looped around a room or area where the information is to be received. A microphone provides input to a transmitter that is attached to the looped wire. The transmitter generates a magnetic field that can be picked up by hearing aids that are t-switch equipped. The hearing aid converts the energy back to sound. The t-switch hearing aids are the same as those which are used with hearing aid compatible telephones. Persons without a t-switch hearing aid may carry a receiver to take in the transit information. Extensive metal surroundings, such as in a bus, affect the strength of a signal. Magnetic interference from high voltage lines, fluorescent light ballasts, and computer cathode ray tubes may create a distracting hum and diminish the primary signal. Unlike the other two methods, only one message can be sent out at a time. A Pocketalker is a portable communication system. This personal item consists of a small amplifier box, headphones, and a microphone. The microphone is attached directly to the amplifier or can be attached with an extension cord. This allows conversation with a person with hearing impairments. [Coburn, et al., 1992; FitzPatrick, et al., 1989]. Visual Signs Transit agencies need signs that are consistent and uniform in design. They need to be easily located and accessible. Print information needs to be with symbols, pictographs and large print. High-quality visual information has the optimum use of color and brightness, such as yellow, orange or white on a dark or black background. Proper illumination must be used to avoid confusion. Glare is eliminated with the use of matte and non- glare surfaces. These techniques ensure good contrast between printed information and its background [Richesin, et al., 1987; Richesin, et al., 1989]. Interior electronic signs can be used in several ways. The sign may be preprogrammed to list all the stops on the route. A driver then just presses a button to display the next stop. A connection to an automatic vehicle location (AVL) system would automatically identify the location of the bus and the correct intersection would be displayed. A device that is located near an upcoming stop could transmit a signal and trigger the 16 sign to change the message to the one identified with the signal. Automatic speech recognition is another method of updating the message. The drivers announce the next stop over the PA system, and the information would be recognized and displayed on the interior sign. Integrated Communication Information and Security System (ICISS): For Visually and Hearing Impaired Persons A Transportation Application The ICISS is a display of station stop announcements, public and emergency information, and advertising messages. This communication system pairs auditory information with the appropriate visual information. This system consists of an auditory and visual display network that provides transit authorities the capability of delivering a specific, rapidly updated message. Three high intensity panels display images and text; it is driven remotely from a central point, and is placed inside the bus. The hardware can digitize, store and replay specific audio messages [Moreyne, M., July 1991]. A type of ICISS is called Visual Communication Network (VCN) by Telecite. This one panel display pairs Visual and auditory information, is in real time, and broadcasts advertising. It is presently installed in the Montreal metro rail system [Moreyne, et al., 1992]. Successful emergency procedures depend largely on audio signalling such as alarms or announcements, visual signalling such as flashing lights or strobes, and human policing [FitzPatrick, et al., 1989]. Departing the Vehicle Techniques of assistance to identify the desired stop area: using a PA system compatible with assistive listening systems, visual displays of announcements, and available seating near an on board "next stop" display [Coburn, et al., 1992]. Legible bus stop signs should include a visible flag that names the approaching cross street. A listing of transfer routes as well as cross streets specific to that route in each bus near the driver and exit door is helpful [Crain-Revis, 1982]. To notify the driver of a desire to stop, a visual confirmation (light) that the signal is in operation is necessary. A visual indicator of the correct door will assist persons who are deaf or have hearing impairments to move to the correct door. This indicator should also have a door opening feature [Coburn, et al., 1992]. Exiting the Station/Terminal To determine the desired exit direction, a visual sign will provide the necessary orientation [Coburn, et al., 1992]. 17 Staff Training Transit agencies need to provide awareness training, including information about deafness and hearing impairments, the use of technical devices, the fundamentals of communicating with people who are deaf and hard of hearing people; and some basic sign language instruction [FitzPatrick, et al., 1989]. Figure 2 is a list of directions for transit personnel when assisting persons with hearing impairments from Transfer a manual for training travel trainers [Cerenio, 1992]. Transit Policy Cards showing the basic signs, in American Sign Language, required to communicate with deaf travelers should be provided for the staff. These cards should be located in places where transit personnel and the travelling public come in contact. An effort to have a person on staff who is fluent in sign language should be made. Paper and pencils to facilitate communication should be located on all buses and information counters. ALL information booths or kiosks should be equipped with an assistive listening systems. [FitzPatrick, et al., 1989; Crain-Revis, 1982]. Auditory announcements should be upgraded to include one Directions for Transit Personnel when Assisting Passengers who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing. "1. When communicating With deaf passengers that read lips: a) Look directly at them so they can see your lips. b) Talk normally and don't exaggerate you speech or lip movements. Accents do not usually affect lip reading. c) Speak with moderate speed without rushing your words. Be prepared to repeat yourself. Even expert lip readers will only understand about 75% of what you say the first time. d) If the lip reader has trouble reading your lips, try getting another person to talk to them. 2. When communicating with passengers using hand signals and finger spelling: a) Remember that R takes practice to become skillful in using hand signals and finger spelling. b) Use a pad and pencil when necessary. c) Keep your communication as clear and simple as possible. d) Remember that not all deaf persons can speak well. If they have been deaf from birth, they will usually speak in a flat and nasal tone. e) Never shout at a totally deaf person. They can't hear you!" Figure 2. Assisting Passengers Who Are Deaf and Hearing Impaired [Cerenio, 1992] 18 or more forms of visual back-up; warning systems should be supplemented by visible signals, such as flashing lights or strobes [FitzPatrick, et al., 1989]. BLINDNESS AND VISUAL IMPAIRMENT There are three areas of major difficulty for persons with visual impairments. These are receiving information, locating and using devices associated with a transit trip and the physical movements through the transit system. Understanding the System Guidelines for Improvements to Transit Accessibility For Persons with Disabilities suggest orientation and mobility training. Large print, high contrast written information; Braille materials; tactile maps; auditory maps; and audio cassette information also assist the visually impaired traveler [Coburn, et al., 1992]. Orientation and mobility training is provided by highly trained specialists. Orientation involves establishing one's position in relation to desired destinations and landmarks. Mobility is moving in a safe and dignified manner from one's current position to a desired location. Due to the complex physical, psychological and social makeup unique to each learner, training is individually prescribed [Richensin, et al., 1987]. There are a wide variety of techniques and devices to assist visually impaired persons to develop independent travel skills. Devices include short identification canes, the longer white canes used with touch techniques, and dog guides. Some electronic mobility aids on the market include the Mowat Sensor, Laser Cane, and the Sonicguide. Each of these is discussed in greater detail below. Braille is system of writing that uses raised dots. It is important to note that only a small percentage of persons with a significant vision loss can read Braille. The American Foundation of the Blind estimates this to be less than 15% [Coburn, et al., 1992]. Guide dogs are trained to stop at elevation changes, to lead their owners around obstacles, and away from overhanging protrusions. Initially, the dog receives three months of training, then the owner and the dog train together to learn about this type of mobility and about each other [Richesin, et al., 1987]. For the guide dog to be effective it must receive the proper balance of praise and discipline from ft's owner. To qualify to own a guide dog the owner must be mature and responsible; function at a cognitive level that allows consistent, safe and effective directions to a guide dog; be able to reinforce the dog's training; be physically able to care for the dog; and have sufficient visual impairment to depend on the dog for guidance without confusion by relying on their own vision [Richesin, et al., 1987]. 19 Using a long white cane allows the users to move with independence, in the correct direction and in safety. A wide variety of techniques are used by persons carrying a cane. Differing techniques are either due to the lack of formal training or modification to training by the individuals. A common technique is to systematically move the cane before them in an arc and touching the ground lightly as the cane reaches either side. This identifies elevation changes or obstructions in the path ahead up to the waist level. Objects above waist level are not detected [Richesin, et al., 1987]. A Mowat Sensor is used to detect obstacles. This hand held device transmits a beam of high-frequency ultrasound. The beam is reflected off obstacles and returned to the device. The user is signaled by vibration when obstacles are detected. Information concerning the distance is provided by the rate of vibration. The Mowat Sensory must be directed towards the intended path. Because of this and its inability to detect changes in elevation, it is often used in conjunction with a long cane or guide dog [Richensin, et al., 1987]. The Laser Cane emits three pencil-thin beams of infrared light to determine elevation changes, objects at head height and objects in the travel path. The user is notified of an obstacle by an audible signal. The Laser Cane also has a tactile signal for objects determined to be directly in front of the user. The Soniguide provides information about the surface characteristics and density of objects in the environment. Through the interpretation of high frequency audible signals, the skilled user can discriminate between a person standing on the comer and the bus stop pole. The Soniguide transmits pulses of inaudible high frequency sound ahead of the user. The sound reflects back, and is converted to an audible signal for interpretation by the user. This system is incapable of detection of elevation changes and is therefore also used with a long cane or guide dog [Richensin, et al., 1987]. Tactile Mapping is a combination of Braille, raised symbols, and large print mixed in such a manner to transform printed maps into useful tools [Crain-Revis, 1982]. Tactile maps used in Tokyo have different textures representing different objects, such as railroad tracks, entrances and exits, restaurants and newsstands. An audio signal indicates the location of the tactile map. Switches labeled in Braille activate a 3 dimensional model of the Tokyo transfer station with audio taped messages. The audio taped messages direct potential passengers to public facilities. Braille blocks embedded near a crosswalk or intersection, lead blind and visually impaired travelers from one end of the crosswalk directly to the bus stop [Uslan, et al., 1990]. 20 Auditory maps are recorded on cassette tapes. Route maps describe specific pathways. An area or district map describes an area such as a neighborhood or college campus. These cost effective tapes also provide information concerning any special programs the transit agencies may offer [Crain-Revis, 1982]. Accessing the Correct Vehicle To locate the stops at station terminal, tactile signs, tactile paths, and visual signage assist persons with visual impairments. PA announcements, "talking" bus stops, and "talking buses" are additional methods to assist the blind and Visually impaired to the correct vehicle [Coburn, et al., 1992; Cerenio, 1992]. Tactile signs contain raised letters or characters which enable persons with visual impairments to read them. The American National Standards Institute has standards for height and font (ANSI A 11.7-1.1980.4.30-Signage). Applications in a transit system would be route and fare information on bus stops, information kiosks or customer service centers. Information at station pylons help passengers identify the correct bus stop [Coburn, et al., 1992]. Tactile Pathways are textured surfaces designed to be detectable by foot or cane and to be distinct from the surrounding ground area. Some textured surfaces are also distinct in color so as to be detectable by persons with low vision ability. In Japan the paths lead from major intersections to bus stops. [Crain-Revis, 1982; Coburn, et al., 1992]. Visual signage should be as described in the previous section. Combining other sensory information (i.e., auditory, wind, vibration) with visual information reinforces the message. For example, a textured floor surface should always be accompanied with visual information. A person who must rely on poor visual senses may have advance notice that a change was about to occur through a difference in the texture of the floor. This redundancy of sensory information gives confirmation and helps to compensate for visual distortion [Richesin, et al., 1989]. The technology used for talking signs is similar to that of the assistive listening devices described in the previous section. They are infrared, AM/FM radio frequency and induction loop. In each case a different type of receiver than those used by persons with hearing impairments is desirable [Love; Crain-Revis, 1982; Richensin, et al., 1987]. The Electronic Speech Information Equipment (ELSIE) was developed in England to enable visually impaired travelers to locate a bus stop, to activate audible route and schedule information, and to be alerted to the arrival of any given bus. There are three components in a "Talking Bus Stop" system: a component that uses digital speech, a unit that reads the route numbers of approaching buses, and a microcomputer that 21 coordinates the other two components. A low power radio transmitter is mounted by the road. Each bus is equipped with a small receiver. As the approaching bus picks up the signal it responds by transmitting a signal back that is encoded with the bus route number. A microprocessor at the bus stop interprets this signal. When a button at the bus stop is activated, a message announcing the approaching bus number, schedule information, and the arrival time of the next bus is given. The box to which the button is attached, emits a "dick" about every second for button location purposes. This clicking also helps identify the bus stop to persons who are blind or visually impaired [Coburn, et al., 1992). Talking buses can use digital speech to announce destinations, stopping points and intersections. Automatic messages can be programmed to be activated by opening the bus door, by pole transmitters along the route, or with other automatic vehicle locator devices. A manual message could be used by an operator depressing a number coded entry key. Current technologies e)dst so that digital speech could interface with a visual display allowing for simultaneous broadcast [Coburn, et al., 1992]. Auditory pathways are a system of speakers positioned throughout the desired path. There are several ways to the activate auditory pathways: the user carries a signalling device, by depressing a button when entering a station, using a motion detector to activate the speaker as she/he enters the area, or the person could wear something that would be detectable by the speakers. Route cards are a low technology signalling device. These are large lettered or numbered cards which identify the desired route. These are held by the passenger in a position so the driver of an approaching bus can see them. If the route number displayed is the same as the approaching bus, the driver stops the bus and picks up the passenger [Project ACTION, 1990]. Entering the Vehicle To ascend the stairs, standard illumination and a surface texture change on the step edges assists persons with visual impairments. A talking fare box in a standard location is also helpful. There must be enough room for seeing eye dogs so the other passengers won't trip as they get on and off the vehicle [Coburn, et W., 1992]. Travelling on the Vehicle Orientation and mobility training, large print with high contrast written information, and PA announcements assists persons with visual impairments to travel on the bus [Coburn, et al., 1992]. A useful system for comprehending announcements is the lntegrated Communication Information and Security Systems (ICISS) mentioned in the previous section. This system an consists of an auditory and visual display network that provides transit authorities the capability of delivering a specific message that is rapidly updated. This 22 system is useful not only for intersection announcements but also abnormal and emergency announcements [Moreyne, M., 1991; Moreyne, et a]., 1992]. Departing the Vehicle The correct stops can be identified by the use of PA announcements, non-glare signage with large print and high contrast. A uniformly located auditory signal system will enable the blind and visually impaired person to notify the driver of the desired stop. An auditory announcement helps identify the exit door, as does standard illumination. Using a cane on the step edges to descend the stairs and exit the vehicle is also helpful [Coburn, et al., 1992]. Exiting the Station or Terminal The following are useful for determining the desired exit direction: orientation and mobility training, large print, non- glare, high contrast signage, electronic or tactile signs, and auditory pathway [Coburn, et al., 1992]. An auditory pathway is auditory signals that provide directional information. Training the Users Initially, a mobility evaluation of functional vision, conceptual and direction understanding of independent movement (up down, parallel, opposite, etc.) needs to be undertaken. Individualized programs may best serve performance difficulties, real or imagined, by persons with visual impairments [Uslan, 1990]. Training for Transit Agency Personnel Training should include explanations of the particular problems of passengers who are blind or have visual impairments. An effective way to stimulate sensitivity to passengers' needs is to encourage communication between the drivers and their passengers [Uslan, et al., 1990]. A Guide to Recognizing and Assisting Travelers with Disabilities is a useful report for providing employees with sensitive and effective information to assist passengers with specials needs [Hickling-Partners Inc., 1983]. This guidebook states that the employee should recognize the special needs of an individual whose needs must be met differently than most people. It states that an understanding of persons who are blind or have visual impairments do not necessary have a hearing impairment; nor are all visually impaired persons totally blind; and they do not have a sixth sense. Persons with visual impairments know how to get around; they usually need little assistance, and like everybody else, have dignity. Used in Figure 3 are suggestions for drivers in Access to Mass Transit for Blind and Visual Impaired Travellers [Uslan, et al., 1990]. 23 Directions for Transit Personnel when Assisting Passengers who are Visually Impaired "1. Tell direction or final destination of the bus before passenger boards. Specify if it is an express bus. 2. When directing a blind or visually impaired person to a seat, the seat adjacent to the door is preferable to the one behind the driver. 3. When handing a transfer to a blind or visually impaired person, place ft directly in his/her hand rather than holding it out. 4. Call out major cross streets so that the passenger can anticipate his/her stop. 5. It is crucial to remember to call out requested stop. 6. Let a blind or visually impaired person exit the bus in a spot free of poles, newspaper stands etc. Otherwise, tell him/her that there are obstacles in the way. 7. Inform the blind or visually impaired person that he/she is exiting the bus at the curb or in the street a few steps away from the curb. 8 Always let a blind or visually impaired person off at the bus stop. 9. When giving direction use specific terms such as "turn right" instead of "over there". 10. When a blind or visually impaired person exits the bus, tell him/her what street the bus is traveling on and whether the bus stop is on the near or far side of the cross street." Figure 3. Tips for Operators Access to Mass Transit for Blind and Visually Impaired Travelers [Uslan, et al 1990] When offering assistance, ask how you can help; people have different needs at different times and not all people are the same. Don't grab them, because this is dangerous as well as insulting and frightening. When guiding visually impaired persons, let them take the employee's arm. The person with visual impairments will walk about a half of step behind, Following the employee's body motions. The person guiding should verbally try to familiarize the person with her/his surroundings. Use a normal tone of voice when giving directions, with clear and specific instructions. Describe any obstacles that are in the path of the traveller [Hickling-Partners Inc., 1983]. COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENTS "For persons with cognitive disabilities, simplified procedures mean fewer demands on their memory, problem- solving skills and the like; standardization allows travelling to become easier over time because what is learned about the procedures and operations can be applied to subsequent travel." [McInerney, et al., 1990] For persons with cognitive impairments, training and personal interactions are very important. The transit agency can provide materials and other features to make the system easy to understand. One of the major 24 problems with most marketing materials is that persons with cognitive impairments cannot read or understand them [Project ACTION, 1990]. To describe the transit system, use simple text and graphics, standard symbols, and training [Coburn, et al., 1992]. Useful techniques to access the correct vehicle include uniform features, training, standard signage and symbols, audio and visual signals, and color coding [Coburn, et al., 1992]. Standard visual and audio signals along with training will help persons with cognitive impairments to move through the doorway, pay the fare, and identify a vacant seat or standing space [Coburn, et al., 1992]. Training, along with simple and clear communication techniques aid the comprehension of special announcements [Coburn, et al., 1992]. Training is needed to help the person with cognitive impairments look for landmarks and listen to PA announcements to identify the correct stop. Uniform location of a standard system to notify the driver of the desire to stop are also helpful [Coburn, et al., 1992]. At the exit to the station, training to determine the desired exit direction and orientation is useful [Coburn, et al., 1992]. Training A Guide to Recognizing and Assisting Travelers with Disabilities is a guide for providing employees with sensitive and effective information to assist passengers with emotional or learning disabilities. Transit personnel need to comply with requests on an individual basis and use common sense in assessing the person's abilities. Sometimes passengers appear to be somewhat disoriented or confused. This may be the result of medication, so the employee should ask ff any additional help is required [Hickling-Partners Inc., 1983]. Many travel problems could be solved by a helpful and understanding staff. Training should make personnel comfortable in serving persons with cognitive disabilities, as well as show staff how to help [McInerney, 1990]. "The majority of persons with cognitive impairments cannot use public transit services and facilities without training. They need to be trained where to get on a bus, how to pay the tare, and when to get off the bus' [Project ACTION, 1990]. COMMON ISSUES There are some issues that are common to all disabilities. Combined Research Results complies general recommendations that apply to all disabilities [Project ACTION, 1990]. 25 Signage Incorporating standard signage Is beneficial to persons with and without disabilities. Ideally, these would be standardized worldwide. Items to be considered for standardization are bus stop signs, architectural design, lighting, emergency alarm systems, icons and color coding, and priority seating [Coburn, et a]., 1992]. Project ACTION identifies the need for signs on buses that can be easily seen and read [Project ACTION, 1990]. "Modification Menu" for System-Wide Map and TimeTable Design, presents criteria to consider when designing time tables and system maps. There is no precise formula for system map and timetable design. A balance must be struck when trying to meet what sometimes may be competing needs for successful transit district informational material. For example, a multi colored map may aid someone with a cognitive impairment but confuse a person who is color blind. Some design considerations are listed below [Bloch, et al., February 1992]. The map size should allow ease in handling. Passengers are more likely to read a map small enough to be held totally open, rather than partially folded. A general rule is, the fewer the folds, and the smaller the size, the better the map. Consistency, simplicity, and legibility are three concerns when designing a map. The print should be as large as possible. Directional concepts, such as north, south, east and west are difficult for persons With cognitive impairments. Showing significant landmarks, such as lakes and rivers, define an area better and help with orientation. Arrows, a symbol that is easily understood, can show the direction of a bus route. Timetable print spacing should be far enough apart on the schedule grid. The print should be large, and type resolution sharp enough for easy reading. Bold type and a sans-serif font are considered easier to read. Consistency, such as labelling all the street names in the same manner, helps anyone with a learning problem. The greater the contrast between the letters and the background, the easier the timetable or map is to read. Black letters on a white background are recommended where possible. Also, the simpler the language is, the easier it is to read and comprehend. A color-coded route system may allow someone who does not understand letters or numbers to match bus lines and negotiate a bus system. It is important to use another mode of identification along with color coding to assist persons who are color blind. 26 For people who cannot read, symbols can be sufficient for orientation. Symbols should be universal, easily recognized, and consistent throughout the map. Labeling next to symbols, rather than on a key, helps those who have processing problems. Electronic Fare Collection Systems To simplify the fare collection system, "Smart Cards" could be used. Smart Cards come in several forms: one is a card with a magnetic strip, and another is a card with a micro-chip embedded in it. The most significant difference between these two cards is the cost of the cards themselves. The magnetic strip card is less expensive, at approximately six cents apiece. The card with the small computer chip is capable of holding considerably more information, and is reprogrammable (reusable). However, the cost of this smart card is approximately six dollars. Other types of cards currently being tested emit a radio frequency or microwaves. These contactless cards allow for easy reading since the user does not need to have the coordination to pass the card through a card reader, but can just hold the card in close proximity to the card reader [Parker, 1992; Labell, et al., 1992]. These cards provide an electronic input into a billing and record keeping system. This means the user does not need to have the correct coins when she/he enters the vehicle. The passengers put their "Smart Card" through a card reader, and their accounts would automatically be debited the cost of the ride. This allows for a cashless system with a monthly billing process. User Training The goal of training programs for the users of transit services is to achieve speed, maximum agility, and smoothness when using transit services. This is important so time is not lost by the disabled passenger, the driver and other riders. One-on-one training for a new disabled user should be assisted by a person with similar disabilities. Independent living centers and training conducted by persons with disabilities provide the best training programs [McInerney, 1990]. Project ACTION, in Training People with Disabilities to Access Public Transportation, offers a five step training curriculum [Project ACTION, March 1992]. The steps are: referral, assessment, program planning, training, and, evaluation and follow up. The referral step includes a press release and brochures distributed to various agencies that provide services for persons with disabilities in the communities. In the second step, the potential uses cognitive abilities, general awareness, physical skills, interpersonal skills, and safety are assessed. From this checklist an individual program is planned. The program plan identifies goals and objectives and is flexible so that either the trainer or the new user may revise the goals and objectives. The training program is divided into four tracks. The first is classroom instruction for those who have little or no experience in the use of public transportation systems. The new user is given the opportunity to 27 develop skills necessary for route specific or general transit travel. The second track is for persons who have demonstrated track one skills and are ready for hands on transit training. Persons who do not live on an existing bus route, but may in the future have a need to ride a fixed route system, use the third track. These persons review the skills of track one and the use of para-transit systems. The last track is for persons who already use the transit system and are ready to expand their travelling distances. The follow-up activity serves as a periodic evaluation tool. The tool is used to determine ff the person is using the transit systems and, if not, to determine the reason why. In most cases, it was found that persons are still using the transit system [Project ACTION, March 1992]. The People Accessing Community Transportation (PACT) prepared a Travel Training Guide to teach the skills necessary to competently and efficiently gain the ability and confidence to travel Independently [Bloch and Hoyt, 1992]. The key principles used in this teaching document are individual instruction, teaching in the real environment, and a graduated lesson sequence. The Travel Training Guide states that before the actual travel training begins, a pre-assessment to determine the needs of the user should be undertaken. A product of the pre-assessment is a psychosocial profile, the means of ambulating, and a skill inventory of the new user. During this evaluation, an opportunity is provided to develop and build a relationship between the trainee and the trainer. It is necessary for the trainer to convey that he or she is a person who can be trusted and gives value to the new user's feelings and opinions [Bloch and Hoyt, 1992]. Often many families experience anxiety about the safety of the trainee. With the permission of the trainee, steps should be taken to involve the family in the training process. The family involvement should be as much as they desire as long as it is not detrimental to the training process and the trainee is in agreement with family participation. Family involvement enhances the training for the trainee, promotes understanding, and relieves some of the anxiety of the family members. The trainer needs to totally plan the route to be taken before any travel training begins. This includes checking to make sure the vehicle mobility equipment is compatible with the user's needs (for example, some bus securement devices can only fit certain models of wheelchairs and some lifts cannot take standees), that the correct fare media has been obtained, where the appropriate bus stops are located, and how the trainee will get to and from the bus stops. The Travel Training Guide list two pre-mobility skills that are necessary before travelling on a transit system. One is the technique of pedestrian travel, such as safe street crossing. Trainees are taught to: 28 - cross streets at intersections using the pedestrian cross lights when applicable, - cross perpendicular to stopped traffic, - watch for traffic making right-hand turns, - cross at intersections with stop signs when there is no traffic. The other skill needed is the ability to distinguish safe and unsafe social situations, and where and when to seek help if needed. Role playing in simulated situations is recommended to prepare a trainee for real situations. Two rules are recommended by this training program: - never leave the route with anyone you don't know, - never accept anything from a stranger. Riding a transit system does not happen in isolation, but with constant interactions with people. A natural network is formed by people who waft at the same bus stop, travel the same route, disembark at the same stop, work in the same place, and of course, the bus operator. During training, the trainer should remain alert for people who could be "natural helpers" and, if it seems appropriate, should find out d they are willing to be available to the trainee. These natural helpers would be the people the trainee can look to for support and assistance in any form needed. The Travel Timing Guide next divides travel-training into eight sequential steps. As no two people are alike, the travel-training process reflects the different transit needs and learning styles of each individual. The steps may take only one day or may be repeated as needed. The important issue is the involvement of the new traveller to the fullest extent possible in the planning and decision making process. The goals for each training session must be clearly articulated, and the trainer should use consistent language terms. Step 1 The trainer picks up the trainee at her/his residence. The first lesson is a ride on the bus so the new user gets some bus experience or, if the trainee has previous bus experience, so the trainer learns what skills the trainee already possesses. Step 2 The trainer meets the trainee in front of their residence and asks the trainee to locate the appropriate bus stop. At this stage, encouragement and praise is offered for any display of successful independent performance. If this task is not performed satisfactorily, the trainer needs to prompt by a verbal cue, physical reminder, or a gesture. Step 3 The trainer meets the trainee at the appointed time at the bus stop. The trainee should be able to initiate and follow through on the proper bus procedures. If the trainee has any difficulties, trainer prompting should continue. At this point natural helpers can be integrated into the training process. It is important that the trainee retains the responsibility for a successful transit trip, and the natural helper lend a different level of support. 29 Step 4 By this stage the new user should be able to perform all procedures on her/his own. The trainer should follow the new traveller to the bus stop, board second, and sit behind the trainee. If the trainee has difficulties, the trainer is close enough to assist. At the end of this step, ff a small mistake is made, the trainer may decide not to assist the trainee; this gives the trainee the opportunity to problem solve on her/his own. Emergency procedures, such as missing the bus or missing the desired exit bus stop, need to be discussed. Role playing is an effective way of learning the proper procedures. Step 5 The trainer's involvement continues to diminish. At this point the only trainer intervention is in case of a dangerous situation. The trainee is given the opportunity to problem solve in unexpected circumstances and learn from these experiences. Map reading, telephone use, and how to solicit assistance is initiated at this stage. Step 6 The trainer follows the trainee in a car. The trainer will meet the trainee at the bus stop, any transfer points, and the final destination. These are the only time during the transit trip when contact is made. Afterwards, the trip should be reviewed, and lots of encouragement given for the newly acquired skills. Step 7 The trainer follows the trainee in a car without the trainee's knowledge. If the trainee is successful she/he are considered travel trained. Step 8 The new user is to report in with the trainer everyday during the first week of independent travel. This allows the trainer to stay in touch with any problems, reinforce techniques, and promotes further confidence building. After one and three months the trainer should meet with the trainee for a comprehensive review of the new user's progress. Often travel training is full of negative emotions. These can be from the trainee, or the trainee's family. Fears may arise regarding personal safety, getting lost or stranded, forgetting the routes, crowds, having a seizure, becoming incontinent, not being able to communicate, failing, the bus itself, or being stigmatized. The trainer must find ways to communicate that the trainee's fears are understood, and to work through these feelings and take steps to overcome the problem. Families or guardians experience fears for the new traveller's personal safety. The trainer needs to enlist them as an ally and involve them in the training process to alleviate their fears. Figure 4 is a list of travel tasks, common to all persons, that are necessary to master during travel training. The trainer needs to assist in developing whatever skills are necessary for the new user to become successful at accomplishing each task (such as where to get weather reports to know what to dress for). 30 List of Travel Tasks Get Ready, Organize and Go Leaving Home Routines Getting Out on Time Remembering What to Bring Proper Clothing The Trip to the Bus Stop Recognizing the Bus Stop Communicating Directions Waiting at the Stop On the Street At the Terminal Recognizing the Bus Boarding the Bus Lift Users People in Wheelchairs Standees Paying the Fare Transfers Taking a Seat Behaviors Landmarks Signalling to Stop Exiting the Bus Telephone Use Getting Additional Information Maps, Schedules, Timetables Figure 4. Travel Training Tasks [Bloch and Hoyt, 1992] While in the transit environment, problems are bound to occur. These may be the trainee's mistake, such as arriving late at a bus stop, or external factors, such as a rerouted bus due to a temporary detour. The following is a list of some common situations, with strategies and techniques to address them. If any of these problems happen repeatedly, the trainer needs to investigate, set up a new travel schedule or assist with the correction of the problem. Missing the Bus The new transit user will have to make a decision. She/he can either waft for the next scheduled bus and be a bit late, find another form of transportation, such as a taxi, or ask for parent or staff member intervention. It is important that the trainee know panicking will not help matters. During travel training, the trainer must give information regarding these options so the new user knows what to expect. 31 Missing the Bus Stop or Boarding the Wrong Bus Again the new user will have to make decisions. The available options are: if she/he miss their stop or recognize she/he are on the wrong bus in just a few blocks she/he could get off the bus and walk back; if the bus has gone to far to walk back the trainee could show an information card or tell the driver what their destination is and hope the driver will help her/him get back on the right track; or if the trainee gets off the bus and are confused the proper action is to look for a phone to call home, her/his employer, or staff members to come and get them. Dealing with lnappropriate Drivers Drivers can intimidate trainees by hurrying them, asking nonessential questions, complaining or making rude statements to or about them, or refusing to use the lift or bus kneeling equipment. The trainees need to know their rights and, if an incident occurs, should report it to the transit authority. To file a complaint the trainee must have the time, location of the vehicle, route number and, if possible, the driver's name or something to identify the driver (i.e., driver badge number). The trainee needs to know the procedure that the bus company will be taking to investigate the complaint and when they will get back to the trainee. Perseverance may be necessary. At the end of the Travel Training Guide is a pre-assessment form, a travel training pre- and post-test form, a daily travel training report form, a progress evaluation of travel skills form, a follow-up form for one and three month, etc. This guide is a complete program structured to teach skills needed to competently and efficiency gain the ability and confidence for independent travel [Bloch and Hoyt, 1992]. Training for the Trainers and Transit Personnel The goal of training programs for transit personnel should be to make bus operators more aware and sensitive to the abilities and needs of persons with all types of disabilities. To increase sensitivity, training should involve one-on-one group discussions with qualified persons having disabilities. Training should be provided on a regular basis and should extend to all transit personnel who interact with the public [Project ACTION, 1990; Coburn, et al., 1992]. Transfer is a two module training manual which supports accessible transit systems. The first module is a training program for persons who will train fixed route and paratransit personnel on sensitivity issues. This module is broken into five units and nine lessons taking between 30 and 40 hours to present. The second module is titled The Education of Trainers for Travel Training Persons with Disabilities. Module Two has two units with three lessons taking 15 to 20 hours to present. The beginning of each lesson is a list of preparation materials that are needed for the lesson, vocabulary and terminology to be discussed in the lesson, and procedures and prompts consisting of detailed directions for presenting the lesson. Also 32 included are handouts to be copied and distributed to the class. The materials that the training sessions in module one cover are legal and policy issues, psychology of public transit use for the person with a disability, communication and advocacy skills, and developing model training sessions. Module Two material is concerned m(nh the role of the travel trainer and developing travel training sessions [Cerenio, 1992]. The first module, lesson one, of Transfer introduces the class instructors and identifies the components of the training. This unit emphasizes the program's extreme importance and significance of the training that the new sensitivity trainers are about to receive. It also emphasizes that in the future it is they who will be instrumental in ensuring that the benefits of transportation are available to persons with disabilities [Cerenio, 1992]. The second unit of Module One is titled The History of Accessible Transit. The module covers the laws, the regulations, and the civil rights of transit users. The 1964 Civil Rights Act, the 1970 Amendment to the Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1964, 1973 Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, and the 1992 American with Disabilities Act (ADA) are federal laws that have addressed accessible services; however, the ADA is the general focus of the lesson. Any relative information on state and local laws specific to the training location should also be discussed. The second lesson in Module Two identifies groups that oversee transit services, identifies funding sources for specialized transit, and determines a plan of action to follow in case of an accessibility issue that should be addressed by local governing bodies. An outside speaker addresses the issue of the role and function of a citizen advisory group, while another speaker discusses the function of the governing body that oversees specialized transit. The Psychology of Public Transit Use for the Persons with a Disability is the title of the third unit of Module One of Transfer [Cerenio, 1992]. A major goal of this section is understanding the various perspectives of transit users concerning the use of public transit, such as the driver and other transit personnel, the disabled user, the disabled consumer who is not a transit user, other transit consumers, and the general public. Speakers from different perspectives discuss their transit experiences. The second part of this unit focuses more closely on attitudes and perceptions about persons with disabilities that tend to dominate, rightly or wrongly, society's thinking. A video, Nobody's Burning Wheelchairs, is shown [American Public Transit Association, 19911. This video explores the lives of people with disabilities and ways the general public is learning from them. Lesson Four provides a specific focus on communication and advocacy skills. As sensitivity trainers, candidates must be able to assist transit operators with communication between themselves and disabled persons in an effective and courteous manner. A useful technique is to present the information visually as well as verbally. This allows for a better understanding of the material. Role playing a transit trip with drivers acting as the user with disabilities, reinforces sensitivity and communication. The second part of Lesson 33 Four provides trainees with an overview of what advocacy is and the many forms that ft can take, from petition signing to initiation of a lawsuit. The last unit of Transfer Module One provides an overview of training sessions specifically oriented to drivers. To build empathy and sensitivity, every driver should have hands on experience with a disability, such as wheelchair use, wearing earplugs, or being blindfolded while performing a task. Nine handouts to be duplicated and passed out to the trainees are incorporated in this training manual. They cover: 1. The different types of mobility aids, 2. Descriptions of different disabilities, their causes and effects, 3. Guidelines for wheelchair lift procedures, how to maneuver a wheelchair up and down stairs, 4. General tips to assist passengers with visual impairments, 5. Assisting passengers with speaking impairments, 6. Questions and answers about epilepsy. Two sample eight-hour workshops are presented, including eight real life role playing situations, one for bus drivers and another for paratransit drivers [Cerenio, 1992]. Module Two is the training for the travel trainer. The first lesson provides an overview of the travel training program. The major point of the program is that, "... trainers should understand that the lack of accessible transportation is considered the single greatest barrier to equal opportunity in employment, recreation and community life for persons with disabilities" [Cerenio, 1992]. Unit one discusses the impact of the ADA and additional obstacles from the general public. The goal of the first lesson is to affirm the critical importance of travel trainers in achieving equal opportunity and accessibility for persons with disabilities. To accomplish this task, skills of effective communication, sensitivity and assertiveness need to be exhibited by the new trainers and, eventually, by their clients. The second lesson for the travel trainers is knowledge about the transit system(s) in their own locality. This includes transit policies, accessible routes and stations, schedules, fares, discount rate bus passes, transfer points, and transit information phone number and complaint division. Another important lesson in this unit is to overcome their own sense of embarrassment or uneasiness when dealing with persons with disabilities. The video Nobody's Burning Wheelchairs is shown in this lesson [American Public Transit Association]. Handouts are distributed regarding passengers with a mobility loss, blindness and low vision, deafness and 34 hearing impairments, speech impairments, developmental disabilities, epilepsy, and also, how to assist passengers in wheelchairs. The last lesson in the second module provides the new trainer an opportunity to develop her/his own travel training sessions. A travel trainer's trip planning sheet is given to the new trainer to help plan the transit trip. On the sheet there are places for information concerning the needs of the traveler, and for trip information. During the session, brainstorming and role playing are used to help generate ideas on how to effectively train for travel [Cerenio, 1992]. Transit Policy Sensitivity to passengers should be a high priority of the transit agency. Bus stops, landmarks and signage help the passenger with cognitive impairments identity a consistent location and establish a routine. Bus stops also eliminate the need to "flag down" a transit vehicle. The system should be made as user friendly as possible. The process of obtaining multiple ride passes or fare media should be designed with the user in mind. All equipment should be in good working order, since persons With disabilities become quickly discouraged when equipment malfunctions and their trip is consequently delayed. This includes the kneeling bus feature and ne)d stop confirmation lights. Transit agencies should place a colored card in the bus window that corresponds to the color coding on the route map for the passenger that does not read [Project ACTION, March 1992]. 35 36 CHAPTER 4 SIGNAGE INFORMATION This section discusses the symbolic encoding of information, and the application of pictographs to transportation information systems. Dominique Vehicle has written Access to Signage Information and Use of Transportation Systems by Mental Disabled People. The project studied the use of pictographs and signage to assist mentally disabled persons make the unusual transit trip [Velche, D., 1992]. The varying factors tested were the message form and environment, travelers abilities to decode texts and signs, and the subjects familiarity with public transport systems. There were 81 mentally retarded subjects involved in this study; 38.3% could read fluently and 17.3% had no access to reading. The average score on the Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) was 67.3 for 65 of the subjects. The use of public transportation by the subjects was 57%. Surprisingly, the degree of mental retardation, as measured by the WAIS scale, had no influence on the use or non-use of public transportation. Fifty-three percent were able to read time. The subjects performed three tasks. The first was the identification of 47 isolated signs where most had pictographs, with or without a written message. The second task called for interpretation of slides presenting different degrees of complicated travel situations. The performance of an unusual real site-trip, with an observer, was the last task. The results of the sign identification and interpretation showed a direct correlation to the WAIS score, reading and knowledge of figures, and ability to read time. The most discerning relationship is the formal cognitive test score and correct sign interpretation. There was no significant influence in identification and interpretation by sex or age of subjects and, surprisingly, the use of public transportation. There were 4 categories of the 47 signs: 1) pictographic only signs, 2) pictographic and written signs, 3) mainly written signs, and 4) directional pictographic signs. Tabulated in Table 3 are the results. There was conflict among the groups of subjects of the types of signs interpreted correctly. For subjects reading fluently, It was more difficult to understand pictographic signs than written signs; the more writing on the signs, the better this group understood the sign. However, in the groups that had no access to reading, the pictographic signs with directions (arrows, stairs, escalators) were interpreted correctly most often. The mainly written signs were interpreted correctly the least often. The more fluent the reading ability, the better the interpretation of media. 37 Click HERE for graphic. Each type of sign was further analyzed as to its abstract or concrete pictorial content, and as to whether the written message was simple or complex. Signs giving a concrete representation of the object, were identified correctly with higher frequency than abstract re- presentations. The sample size was not large enough to draw statistical conclusions; however, it was observed that concrete signs were accessible to people with relatively poor reading abilities. Pictographs with written messages, as opposed to pictographs with simple text, were better interpreted by all groups. In the slide presentation, access to reading was again the determinant of correct iterpretation of the photographs. These slides had an increased amount of written information, as they were illustrating a more complex real world environment. Again, surprisingly, there was no significant difference in correct interpretation if the subjects did not use public transportation. The slides were shown in and out of their environment, and proved to be very difficult to identify out of the context of their environment. 38 It was difficult to reach conclusions based on the trip performance. While 83% of the studied travellers easily identified and interpreted the major pan of the pictographic or written signs, others had significant difficulties. Many made up for their deficiencies in interpreting information by asking other passengers for help. In 40% of the cases the observers had to intervene to direct attention in the correct direction. Pictographs are effective, depending on their form, complexity, environment, and if there is previous experience with the message. However, pictographs are not an alternative to the written message. Mentally retarded persons who know how to read usually identify and interpret written messages the best. The mentally retarded person who has no access to reading may have some success with pictographs, but in any case, her/his success rate is low. The greater the person's mental capabilities, the greater the success rate of identifying and interpreting both written and visual signage. In summary, the study by Velche indicates that the symbolic encoding of information is very complex and depends on environmental and cultural influences. The best application of pictographs should include written information for clarification as well as redundancy. 39 40 CHAPTER 5 SURVEY AND INTERVIEWS The literature review revealed technologies and policies available as well as policies for persons with visual and hearing impairments, but little information was available for persons with cognitive impairments. To 91 this knowledge gap, surveys and interviews were conducted with persons with cognitive and other impairments, trainers of persons with sensory and cognitive impairments, and providers of transportation services. This section describes methods and results of the survey and the interviews. SURVEY METHODS The basic structure of the survey followed the format of the trip tasks previously discussed, but additional tasks concerning emergency situations were included. For each task on the survey, there were nine media types and ten training formats listed. Participants were asked to rate each, media type and training format for each trip task. The media refers to communication methods that the transit agency could provide to assist in making a successful transit trip, such as system maps, printed schedules, audio tapes, tactile maps or driver announcements. The training format describes different techniques and aids that would be used when training persons with cognitive impairments to ride a fixed route system, for example, training one-on-one with a trained guide, repetition, or computer games. Descriptions of media types and training formats were listed at the beginning of the survey. The rating scale was from one to five as follows: 5........Extremely Important 4........Very Important 3........Important 2........Not too Important 1........Not Important There was room on each page for additional comments, and verbal encouragement was given to participants to state any aids other than the ones listed on the survey that were beneficial. The survey is listed in Appendix B. The Special Transportation Fund Advisory Committee of Lane Transit District (LTD) in Eugene was chosen to fill out the survey. This group is composed of 17 persons with the following affiliations: two with developmentally disabled services, three with paratransit services, three transit users with physical disabilities; three representatives from other transportation districts, two special interest groups, such as elderly, and four LTD staff including operators and customer service representatives. An exact listing is given Appetency B. 41 SURVEY RESULTS A survey was completed by each individual, but was discussed as a group beforehand. During the discussion ft was stated that persons often have more than one type of disability. It was difficult to make distinct separations as to which media or training format would prove successful for just cognitive impairments. To reach conclusions, a statistical analysis was conducted. For each media type per trip task the rating mean was calculated. The highest mean rating, was compared to each of the other mean ratings per trip task, using Student's t-Test. In statistical analysis, the probability of a statistical significant difference occurring between two means is associated with a p-value. The larger p-values indicate that there was strong evidence to support that the difference between two means is zero. If the p-value is greater than 0.05, there is a 95% confidence level that there was not a statistical significant difference between the means. The same procedure was performed with the training formats. The original data, the calculated means, and the resulting probabilities or p-values are listed in Appendix C. Media Table 4 is tabulations of the highest mean ratings of the media types, per each trip task. The means have no significant statistical difference from the highest mean. Also evaluated were the highest means for each task category and for all the tasks combined. Upon, Visual inspection of Table 4, a pattern is obvious. Of the nine media types listed on the survey, driver announcements and customer service consistently rated the highest. There was no significant difference between these two mean ratings in 9 out of 19 tasks. Visual signs was the ne)d most helpful media type. In five tasks these top three were determined to have no significant difference between them. The results are: 1. For the tasks relating to understanding the system, the highest rated media was customer service and visual signs. Both are rated "very important" 2. For the tasks relating to accessing the correct vehicle, the highest rated media types are customer service, visual signs and driver announcements. The rating for these three media types indicate that they are "very important." 3. For the tasks entering and travelling on the vehicle, and departing the vehicle, driver announcements mean ratings are statistically significantly different from all the other media types. For the tasks involving entering and travelling on the vehicle, the mean rating is half way between "very important" and "extremely important". For the tasks involving departing the vehicle the mean rating is "very important." 42 Table 4. Media Mean Ratings With No Significant Difference to the Highest Mean Media TASKS Visual Printed Talking Customer Driver Signs Schedule Signs Service Announcement UNDERSTANDING THE SYSTEM A 4.29 3.53 3.75 4.18 4.13 B 3.60 3.64 3.40 4.13 3.56 C 3.88 4.44 MEAN 3.90 4.25 ACCESSING THE CORRECT VEHICLE A 4.41 4.44 4.65 B 4.00 4.53 4.07 C 4.41 3.88 4.36 D 4.76 4.31 4.19 MEAN 4.39 4.39 4.11 ENTERING THE VEHICLE A 4.64 B 4.36 MEAN 4.50 TRAVELING ON THE VEHICLE A 3.87 4.29 B 4.73 C 4.79 D 3.08 3.85 4.09 MEAN 4.49 DEPARTING THE VEHICLE A 3.94 4.50 B 2.87 3.73 MEAN 4.13 Task descriptions follow at the end of Table 4 43 Table 4. Media Mean Ratings With No Significant Difference to the Highest Mean (continued) Media TASKS Visual Printed Talking Customer Driver Signs Schedule Signs Service Announcement EXITING THE STATION/TERMINAL; DETERMINE DESIRED EXIT DIRECTION MEAN 4.06 3.60 3.29 3.36 EMERGENCIES A 4.19 4.54 B 4.87 C 4.07 4.50 4.21 MEAN 4.54 4.25 TOTAL MEAN 4.15 Tasks Description Understanding the System A. Learn routes, stops/stations, transfer points and fares B. Learn schedules C. Learn special services and provisions Accessing the Correct Vehicle A. Locate stops, station, terminals B. Locate and access the fare system C. Move to proper boarding area D. identifying the correct incoming bus Entering the Vehicle A. Pay fare B. Entering the vehicle-identify seat or standing area Travelling on the Vehicle A. Comprehend announcements for special services B. Comprehend intersection announcements C. Comprehend driver announcements D. Comprehend automated announcements Departing the Vehicle A. Identify the desired stop/station/terminal B. Notify driver of desired stop Exiting the Station/Terminal; Determine Desired Exit Direction Emergencies A. Route deviations B. Canceled routes C. Weather conditions - snow-fog 44 4. When exiting the station and determining the desired direction, visual signs, talking signs, driver announcements, and customer service, rated highest, with no statistical significant difference. The mean ratings for these tasks ranges from 'important' to "very important." 5. In emergency situations, customer service and driver announcements rates the highest, with mean ratings ranging from "very important" to "extremely important." Driver announcements had no significant statistical difference to the highest media mean rating 16 times. Learning special services and provisions, moving to the proper boarding area, and canceled routes were the tasks where driver announcements did not rank highest. When the overall media mean was calculated and compared to the other media means, driver announcements rated "very important," with evidence to support a statistical significant difference with WI the other media. A number of written comments indicated that consistency and simplicity in driver announcements was important. Also commented, was that passengers should notify the driver verbally ff there is difficulty in locating the desired destination stop. Customer Service and visual signs mean ratings had no significant difference to the highest mean 13 and 10 times, respectively. Comments stressed that color coding, larger print, and better lighting are needed to improve visual signs. Training Format Table 5 tabulates the highest mean ratings for the training formats for each task. The means have no significant statistical difference from the highest mean. Also evaluated were the highest mean ratings for each task category and in general, over all tasks. Again, in Table 5 a pattern is evident. The most effective training formats are one-on-one with trained guide, repetition, and real time on bus. In 19 out of 19 tasks, there is no statistical significant difference between these three. However, when the overall means are calculated, only one-on-one with trained guide, and repetition are rated highest, with strong evidence to suggest that the means are similar. Three training formats rate highest, without differing statistically, for the tasks in five categories. The categories are accessing the correct vehicle, entering the vehicle, travelling on the vehicle, departing the vehicle, and exiting the station. The three formats are one-on-one with trained guide, repetition and real time on bus. For the tasks involved in accessing the correct vehicle and departing the vehicle, the formats rated from 'very important to "extremely important." For the tasks in the categories entering the vehicle and travelling on the vehicle, all the formats rated "very important." 45 Table 5. Training Format Mean Ratings With No Significant Difference to the Highest Mean Training Format TASKS 1/1 with 1/1 with Repetition Time on Bus Simulated Trained Guide Guide Trips UNDERSTANDING THE SYSTEM A 4.65 4.59 4.29 B 4.24 4.71 4.00 C 4.25 4.25 3.47 MEAN 4.38 4.52 ACCESSING THE CORRECT VEHICLE A 4.35 4.56 4.29 B 4.24 4.56 3.93 C 4.53 4.27 4.27 D 4.18 4.47 4.06 MEAN 4.31 4.46 4.13 ENTERING THE VEHICLE A 4.19 4.33 4.13 B 4.25 4.56 3.88 MEAN 4.22 4.45 4.00 TRAVELING ON THE VEHICLE A 4.26 4.25 4.13 B 4.46 4.50 4.21 C 4.59 4.56 4.56 D 3.91 4.47 4.47 MEAN 4.29 4.44 4.35 DEPARTING THE VEHICLE A 4.56 4.44 4.44 B 4.53 4.25 4.63 MEAN 4.55 4.34 4.53 Task description follow at end of Table 5 46 Table 5. Training Format Mean Ratings With No Significant Difference to the Highest Mean (continued) Training Format TASKS 1/1 with 1/1 with Repetition Time on bus Simulated Trained Guide Guide Trips EXITING THE STATION/TERMINAL; DETERMINE DESIRED EXIT DIRECTION MEAN 4.56 4.50 4.56 EMERGENCIES A 4.00 3.71 3.79 3.58 B 4.00 3.14 3.33 3.64 3.67 C 4.00 3.29 3.75 4.00 4.00 MEAN 4.00 3.61 3.81 3.75 TOTAL MEAN 4.31 4.34 Task Description Understanding the System A. Learn routes, stops/stations, transfer points and fares B. Learn schedules C. Learn special services and provisions Accessing the Correct Vehicle A. Locate stops, station, terminals B. Locate and access the fare system C. Move to proper boarding area D. Identify the correct incoming bus Entering the Vehicle A. Pay fare B. Entering the vehicle-identify seat or standing area Travelling on the Vehicle A. Comprehend announcements for special services B. Comprehend intersection announcements C. Comprehend driver announcements D. Comprehend automated announcements Departing the Vehicle A. Identify the desired stop/station/terminal B. Notify driver of desired stop Exiting the Station/Terminal; Determine Desired Exit Direction Emergencies A. Route deviations B. Canceled routes C. Weather conditions - snow-fog 47 For the tasks involving understanding the system, one-on-one with trained guide, and repetition mean ratings were considered highest with no statistical significant difference. The ratings were "very important" to "extremely important." In emergency situations the tasks one-on-one with trained guide, repetition, real time on bus, and simulated trips rated highest without any statistical significant difference among them. They all rated as "very important." INTERVIEW METHODS The interviews were structured around the trip tasks. The goal of the interviews was to determine which techniques would best increase accessibility on a fixed route system for persons with cognitive impairments. A list of some currently available technologies was given to the participants. They were then asked to comment on areas where there was a need for improvement and provide information concerning helpful media types, training techniques, technologies, transit policies, or any other aids that prove effective in making transit systems more accessible. A total of nine people were interviewed. Four people were trainers of persons with a full range of physical and mental disabilities. One person was a fixed route transit user with a brain injury, and the remaining four were coordinators of disabilities programs. The names, titles, and agencies are listed in Appendix D. INTERVIEW RESULTS The interview results are reported according to task. Evaluation of Rider Transit Needs and Understanding the System This step is usually completed by the trainer of persons with disabilities. The trainer evaluates the transit needs of their client for which routes are to be used, what fare media is to be used, what type of assistance is needed to make necessary transfers, and any special services that are required. The next step is to set up a transit plan. To assist in this step, transit agencies should provide training to the trainers regarding the information available and the services that are available. This training should be repeated, as necessary, to reflect new or changed services offered by the transit agency. By keeping the trainers current on changed services, confusion by persons with cognitive impairments will be decreased when negotiating the transit system. Video tapes would be helpful for general instruction. This would be a useful tool for a person who has never ridden the bus and would help review the transit trip for the experienced passenger if necessary. Not all persons with impairments know what the appropriate transit behavior is. The tapes could show all phases 48 of bus riding including where the route number on the bus is located, a demonstration of how to pay the fare, how to pull the buzzer to notify the driver of the desired final stop, etc. One of the characteristics of emotional and learning disabilities is the variability of behavior. The tape could be shown repeatedly, or whenever needed, as a reminder of proper conduct in a bus. To easily identify the routes on system maps, the routes should be color coded. Transit personnel should be communicative and willing to help potential passengers in learning new information or confirming transit information already known by the user. Accessing the Correct Vehicle It is important for persons with cognitive impairments to receive confirmation that they are taking the proper bus. Drivers announcing the route name and number when the door opens offer assurance that the passenger is accessing the correct vehicle. Talking buses also would accomplish this task. To offer the best service, the voice of a talking bus should be nonabrasive and easily understood. A lot can be done at major transfer points to increase accessibility. Transit agencies need to provide color coding and symbols to identify the correct transfer section. The coding should match the symbols and color coding on system maps. Route maps and a clock at each section are informative and reassuring; and there needs to be a distinct boundary around each section to avoid confusion. Buses with larger signs on the side would make route recognition easier. The interview revealed that the use of route cards, carried by the person with disabilities, would provide assistance in cases of disorientation and confusion. The card would show the origin, destination, identification and who to call in case of unforeseen circumstances. However, some persons do not enjoy the stigma that goes with being disabled and would feel labeled by the use of these cards. Though the use of these cards may be useful, they should be optional to preserve the dignity of the transit system passengers. Entering the Vehicle The proper way to enter and locate seating should be taught Role playing is a way of teaching a person with disabilities how to enter the bus, pay the tare, and find a vacant seat. Keeping the front seats available for persons with disabilities helps the person with cognitive impairments to locate a vacant seat, reduce the effect of distractions, and stay focused on the transit trip plan. To simplify the payment system, the transit agency should provide a fare structure that is easy to use. By keeping the number of coins low, that is, two quarters instead of one nickel, one dime and one quarter, 49 simplifies fare collection. Having passes, tokens, or having the correct amount of money ready ahead of time encourages smoothness in the fare paying transaction. This allows the passenger to enter the vehicle and be seated without drawing unwanted attention to themselves. Travelling on the Vehicle The transit agency should enforce the policy of keeping the front seats available for person with disabilities. Providing seats in the front section of the bus helps persons with cognitive impairments keep better focused on the trip plan and allows for easier physical maneuvering. If possible, the transit agency should try to eliminate standees or move standees further to the back section of the bus. In cases of emergency, special announcements, or if inappropriate behavior is exhibited, special attention is required of the bus operator and transit personnel. Interviews revealed that it Is important to keep instructions simple. Operators giving instructions need to be: 1) sensitive of passengers needs, and 2) aware of any uneasiness or confusion felt by the passenger. Individualized attention is often necessary. In some circumstances it may be necessary that the transit agency notify the training facility so that the passenger's transportation goals are met. Departing the Vehicle Locating the correct stop for the passenger's destination can be difficult. Training persons with impairments to recognize landmarks helps to locate the correct stop. In some cases, to identify the correct stop, cues can come from other passengers with a higher functioning level, for example, when groups of people working at the same location are travelling together. When exiting the vehicle, a visual sign that lights up "Exit to Back of Bus" when buzzer has been rung is useful. The lighted sign provides confirmation that the buzzer has been rung and where to exit the vehicle. Exiting the Station/Terminal When first stepping off of the vehicle it necessary to orient oneself to the new environment. Repetition training to determine the desired exit direction serves to meet this end. When travelling in a group, as in the above situation, cues from persons with higher functioning levels help to identify the correct direction. User Training The interviews identified some overall procedures that are helpful for increasing fixed route accessibility. Carrying a route card that identifies the user, which route(s) are to be taken, the origin and destination stop and who to contact in case of unforeseen circumstances may be desirable. This card needs to be optional 50 because some persons feel degraded when labeled as disabled. It is important to treat all persons with dignity. Trainers of persons with disabilities stated that ideally training would be accomplished one-on-one with a trained guide but that training can be successful in small groups. An important training technique is to monitor the client(s) to make sure the trip plan is followed. This is done by following the person with impairments in a car, making sure she/he gets off the bus at the proper stop and proceeds in the correct direction to his/her destination. Transit Personnel It was stressed in the interviews that transit personnel need to be sensitive to persons with disabilities and be aware of their needs. When giving instructions, employees need to be patient, talk in an uncomplicated manner, and be willing to answer questions. At times of emergencies or moments of confusion, persons with impairments need personal attention. Transit personnel must be aware of human rights and treat all persons with dignity. If inappropriate behavior by the passenger occurs, driver intervention is necessary. Drivers need to know how to defuse the situation. Cooperation between the transit agency and training facility is necessary to alleviate any reoccurring problems. Many people have more than one disability, persons with cognitive impairments may also have difficultly hearing. Trainers stated that knowing some American Sign Language is useful. It is helpful to always confirm a message, that is, repeat the message or say it in more than one way. Additional Comments Adapting to changes in routes, schedules or special services is difficult. Participants in the interview suggested avoiding seasonal changes and reducing the frequency of route changes in general. When major changes occur, extensive assistance by transit personnel is needed to explain and demonstrate new procedures or routes. There is a need for timely and systematic flow of information from the transit agency to the training facilities. Programs for tra